[134] D. Fimmen, _Die kretisch-mykenische Kultur_ (1921), p. 210.

[135] Dehio, _Gesch. d. deutsch. Kunst_ (1919), pp. 16, et seq.

[136] Dieterich, _Byzant. Charakterköpfe_, pp. 136, et seq.

[137] Even admitting within itself the animals of its fields.--_Tr._

[138] Dehio, _Gesch. d. deutschen Kunst_ (1919), pp. 13, et seq.

[139] Eduard Meyer, _Gesch. d. Altertums_, I, p. 188.

[140] The English parallel is Winchester.--_Tr._

[141] The phenomenon is perhaps too well known in our days to need exemplification. But it is worth while recalling that the usual form of disgrace for a minister or courtier of the seventeenth or eighteenth century was to be commanded to “retire to his estates,” and that a student expelled from the universities is said to be “rusticated.” Since this volume was written, a remarkable proof of the reality of this spiritual indrawing by the Megalopolis has been given by the swift spread of radio broadcasting over the West-European and American world. For the country-dweller, radio reception means intimate touch with the news, the thought, and the entertainment of the great city, and relieves the _grievance_ of “isolation” that the older country-folk would never have felt as a grievance at all.--_Tr._

[142] In the case of the Venetians the money-outlook was already potent during the earlier Crusades. But the fact that their financial exploitation of the great religious adventure was regarded as scandalous indicates sufficiently that the rural world of the West was not yet face to face with the money-idea.--_Tr._

[143] See Ch. XIII below.

[144] Samarra exhibits, like the Imperial Fora of Rome and the ruins of Luxor, truly American proportions. The city stretches for 33 km. [20 miles] along the Tigris. The Balkuwara Palace, which the Caliph Mutawakil built for one of his sons, forms a square of 1250 m. [say, three-quarters of a mile] on each side. One of the giant mosques measures in plan 260 × 180 m. [858 × 594 ft.]. Schwarz, _Die Abbasidenresidenz Samarra_ (1910); Herzfeld, _Ausgrabungen von Samarra_ (1912). [Pataliputra, in the days of Chandragupta and Asoka, measured _intra muros_ 10 miles × 2 miles (equal to Manhattan Island or London along the Thames from Greenwich to Richmond).--_Tr._]

[145] Karlsruhe, with its fan-scheme, and Mannheim, with its rectangles, are earlier than Washington. But both are small places. The one is a sort of extension of the prince’s Rococo park and centred on his _point de vue_; the other, though its block-numbering, unique in Europe, seems to relate it to the American city, was really planned as a self-contained military capital, rectangular only within its oval enceinte, whereas the American rectangles are meant to be added to. The layout of Petersburg by Peter the Great (which has been adhered to to this day and is still incompletely filled in in detail) is a much more forcible example of the arbitrary planning of a megalopolis. Though outside the “European” world, it is of it, for it was the visible symbol of Peter’s will to force Europe upon Russia. It is contemporary with Mannheim and Karlsruhe (early eighteenth century), but its creator conceived of it as a city _of the future_.--_Tr._

[146] In the case of Canada, not merely great regions, but the _whole country_ has been picketed out in equal rectangles for future development.--_Tr._

[147] It has been left to the _Western_ Civilization of present-day Rome to build the garden suburbs that the Classical Civilization could have built.--_Tr._

[148] Friedländer, _Sittengeschichte Roms_, I, p. 5. Compare this with Samarra, which had nothing like this population. The “Late Classical city on Arabian soil was un-Classical in this respect as in others. The garden suburb of Antioch was renowned throughout the East.”

[149] The city which the Egyptian “Julian the Apostate,” Amenophis IV (Akhenaton) built himself in Tell-el-Amarna had streets up to 45 m. [149 ft.] wide.

[150] Pöhlmann, _Aus Altertum und Gegenwart_ (1910), pp. 211, et seq.

[151] Some years ago a French peasant was brought to notice whose family had occupied its glebe since the ninth century.--_Tr._

[152] Shaw, _The Quintessence of Ibsen_.

[153] An ancient Hindu materialism.--_Tr._

[154] For what follows see Eduard Meyer, _Kl. Schriften_ (1910), pp. 145, et seq.

[155] _Hist. Nat._, XVIII, 7.--_Tr._

[156] We know of measures to promote increase of population in China in the third century B.C., precisely the Augustan Age of Chinese evolution. See Rosthorn, _Das soziale Leben der Chinesen_ (1919), p. 6.

[157] The _amphitheatres_ of Nîmes and Arles were filled up by mean townlets that used the outer wall as their fortifications.--_Tr._

[158] Strabo, Pausanias, Dio Chrysostom, Avienus, etc. See E. Meyer, _Kl. Schriften_, pp. 164, et seq.

[159] The Colosseum of Rome itself in due course fell into this decay and we read in the guide-books that “its flora were once famous”--420 wild species lived in its ruins. If this could happen in Rome, we need not be surprised at the quick, almost catastrophic, conquest of the Maya cities by tropical vegetation.--_Tr._

[160] According to the researches of K. Sethe. Cf. Robert Eisler, _Die kenitischen Weihinschriften der Hyksoszeit_, etc. (1919).

[161] Henceforward, and indeed throughout this work, the word “language” is not to be regarded as limited to spoken and written language. As the above definition indicates, it includes all modes of intelligible conscious-expression--“affective language” in the widest sense.--_Tr._

[162] Obviously, Totemistic facts, so far as they come under the observation of the waking-consciousness, obtain a significance of the Taboo kind also; much in man’s sexual life, for example, is performed with a profound sense of fear, because his will-to-understand is baffled by it.

[163] W. von Humboldt (_Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues_) was the first to emphasize the fact that a language is not a thing, but an activity. “If we would be quite precise, we can certainly say _there is no such thing as ‘language,’_ just as there is no such thing as ‘intellect’; but man does speak, and does act intellectually.”

[164] Hans Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), architect of the Opera House, the Altes Museum, and the Königswache of Berlin. Gottfried Schadow (1764-1850), sculptor (statues of Frederick II, Zieten, etc.; Quadriga of Brandenburger Tor), a classicist _malgré lui_ (not to be confused with two other artists of the same name, quasi-contemporaries).--_Tr._

[165] See p. 29 above.

[166] _Gesch. d. Deutsch. Kunst_ (1919), pp. 14, et seq.

[167] This practice of inscription survives till deep into the Civilization. Even in 1914 the guns of the German Army, true products of the advanced machine-shop though they were, carried a Latin threat to the foe. From the magic rune of the blade it is a step to the motto on the shield, and then to the motto alone as unity-charm of the regiment or the Order.--_Tr._

[168] W. Altmann, _Die ital. Rundbauten_ (1906).

[169] A striking case in point is the Roman military camp. See Vol. I (English edition), p. 185, foot-note.--_Tr._

[170] Bulle, _Orchomenos_, pp. 26, et seq.; Noack, _Ovalhaus und Palast in Kreta_, pp. 53, et seq. The house-plans still traceable in Latin times in the Ægean and Asia Minor may perhaps allow us to order our notions of human conditions in the pre-Classical period; but the linguistic remains, never.

[171] _Medieval Rhodesia_ (London, 1906).

[172] Cf. Ch. X.

[173] Though magic or prestige may of course be involved in their ornamentation, these are supervening and not radical virtues.--_Tr._

[174] In this connexion it ought to be someone’s business to undertake physiognomic studies upon the massy, thoroughly peasantish, Roman busts; the portraits of Early Gothic; those of the Renaissance, already visibly urban; and, most of all, the polite English portraiture from the late-eighteenth century onward. The great galleries of “ancestors” contain an endless wealth of material.

[175] The sudden fear of some animal or object seen, believed to result in her child’s bearing the mark of it. Cf. Jacob and the speckled cattle (Genesis xxx, 37). The attitude of biologists to this question is not negative, but non-committal.--_Tr._

[176] J. Ranke, _Der Mensch_ (1912), II, p. 205.

[177] This suggestive sentence should, of course, be read with its reservation. The cranial evidences of Crete are highly illustrative in this connexion; they would not indeed be trusted by a modern historian without weighty collateral evidence, but here this evidence exists. Up to the latter part of Middle Minoan, the “long” head predominated heavily, not only from the outset, but increasingly as the Culture rose, until it included two-thirds of the whole, intermediates forming a quarter and “short” heads a mere handful. But from about the time of the catastrophic fall of Late Minoan II, the long heads fall to a startlingly low figure, while intermediates account for half, and short heads for more than a third. It marks the end of Minoan Civilization and the coming of the Achæans. But just as the Minoan skull held its own throughout the Minoan Age, so now, after its fall, the short head maintained itself, as stated in the text, through all subsequent vicissitudes, from the “Sea-peoples” through Roman, Arab, and Turk, to this day. Thus the Cretan landscape has had two skull-types successively; but the change from one to the other occurred in connexion with an immense cataclysm, nothing less than the collapse of a Civilization. The rough deduction that seems to emerge from this case is that a great Culture holds its skull, no doubt in the course of its striving towards ideal physical type of its own (see p. 127), but that where that major organism does not exist, the skull endures as the land endures and the peasant endures. This applies also to the Alpine region, which has received the deposit of migrations, but has never been the centre of a high Culture.--_Tr._

[178] Cf. D. Randall-MacIver, _The Etruscans_ (1928), Ch. I.--_Tr._

[179] Art is fully developed in the animals. So far as man can get at it by way of analogy, it consists for them in rhythmic movement (“dance”) and sound-formation (“song”). But this is by no means the limit of artistic impression _on_ the animal itself.

[180] Jesus says to the Seventy whom he is sending out on mission: “And salute no man on the way” (Luke x, 4). The ceremonial of greeting on the high-road is so complicated that people in a hurry have to omit it. A. Bertholet, _Kulturgeschichte Israels_ (1919), p. 162.

[181] Exekias--represented in the British Museum by his “Achilles and Penthesilea” (_Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Ceramics,” Plate I)--stands at the end of Black Figure as the master of the possibilities of refinement in it--on the verge of the style-change to Red Figure, yet apart from it. Sebastian Bach is his “contemporary.”--_Tr._

[182] “All forms, even those that are most felt, contain an element of untruth” (Goethe). In systematic philosophy the intent of the thinker coincides neither with the written words nor with the understanding of his readers, as it consists in his thinking meanings into words in the course of using the words themselves (_da es ein Denken in Wortbedeutungen ist, im Verlauf der Darstellung mit sich selbst_).

[183] Jespersen deduces language from poesy, dance, and particularly courtship. _Progress in Language_ (1894), p. 357.

[184] See Vol. I, p. 80.--_Tr._

[185] Sentence-like complexes of sound are known also to the dog. When the Australian dingo reverted from domestication to the wild state, he reverted also from the house-dog’s bark to the wolf’s howl--a phenomenon that indicates a transition to very much simpler sound-signs, but has nothing to do with “words.”

[186] The gesture-languages of to-day (Delbrück, _Grundfragen d. Sprachforsch._, pp. 49, et seq., with reference to the work of Jorio on the gestures of the Neapolitans) without exception presuppose word-language and are completely dependent upon its intellectual systematism. Examples: the mimicry of the actor, and the language which the American Indians have formed for themselves for the purpose of mutually understanding one another in spite of extreme differences and fluidity in the verbal languages of the various tribes. Wundt (_Völkerpsychologie_, I, p. 212) quotes the following to show how complicated sentences can be handled in this language: “White soldiers, led by an officer of high rank, but little intelligence, took the Mescalero Indians prisoners.”

[187] See Vol. I, p. 172.--_Tr._

[188] The case of voice-differentiations of the same word in Chinese is not analogous. It arose only out of scholars’ work in the later phases of the Chinese Civilization as understood in this work. And it is a mechanical expedient and not a structural character--i.e., it lacks the _polarity_ mentioned in the text. Voice-management distinguishes, not “great” from “small,” but “pig” from “God,” “bamboo” from “to dwell.” English students will find a clear and understandable account of this and other Chinese differential devices in Karlgren’s little book: _Sound and Symbol in Chinese_ (English translation, 1923).--_Tr._

[189] Possibly connected with this is the _emphatic antithesis_ characterizing many of our proverbs and everyday idioms--e.g., “up hill and down dale” (“_par monts et vaux_,” “_bergauf bergab_”), meaning hardly more than “everywhere.”--_Tr._

[190] _Die Haupttypen des Sprachbaus_, 1910.

[191] See the article “Bantu Languages,” by Sir H. H. Johnston, _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[192] Even calling something “invisible” is a definition of it under the light-aspect.

[193] Only technics are entirely true, for here the words are merely the key to actuality, and the sentences are continually modified until they are, not “truth,” but actuality. A hypothesis claims, not rightness, but usefulness.

[194] See pp. 29, et seq.

[195] The English reader may refer to Karlgren’s _Sound and Symbol in Chinese_, already mentioned, for details.--_Tr._

[196] See the article “Indo-European Languages,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[197] Translation, it must be remembered, is normally from older into younger linguistic conditions.

[198] See p. 140 above.--_Tr._

[199] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XVI, p. 251b.--_Tr._

[200] See the articles “Sanskrit” and “Indo-European Languages,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[201] P. Jensen, _Sitz. Preuss. Akademie_ (1919), pp. 367, et seq.

[202] L. Hahn, _Rom und Romanismus im griech-röm. Osten_ (1906).

[203] See the article “Book-keeping” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[204] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. des Alt._, I, §§ 455, 465.

[205] See below.

[206] Radio broadcasting does not controvert this. Its characteristic quality is not (as is often supposed) dissemination to vast numbers irrespective of physical distance, but a special intimacy of address to the listening individual.--_Tr._

[207] See the article “Semitic Language,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[208] Similarly the modern Jews of the Dispersion write Yiddish, which is a modified German, in Hebrew characters.--_Tr._

[209] See Lidzbarski, _Sitz. Berl. Akad._ (1916), p. 1218. There is plentiful material in M. Miese, _Die Gesetze der Schriftgeschichte_ (1919).

[210] P. Kretschmer, in Gercke-Norden, _Einl. i. d. Altertumswissenschaft_, I, p. 551.

[211] See the articles “Romance Languages” and “Latin Language,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[212] Cf. p. 122.

[213] For this reason I am one of those who believe that, even quite late, Etruscan still played a very important part in the colleges of the Roman priesthood.

[214] Precisely for this reason it has to be recognized that the Homeric poems, which were first fixed in the colonization period, can only give us an urban literary language and not the courtly conversation-language in which they were originally declaimed.

[215] So much so that the workers of the great cities call themselves _the_ People, thereby excluding the bourgeoisie, with which no community feeling conjoins them. The bourgeoisie of 1789 did exactly the same.

[216] The dominant nucleus within the Spartan ensemble.--_Tr._

[217] Ed. Meyer, _Ursprung und Geschichte der Mormonen_ (1912), pp. 128, et seq. [An extended summary of Mormon history will be found in the article “Mormons,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[218] Ex-mercenaries of Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, who seized and settled in Messina. The questions arising out of this act precipitated the First Punic War.--_Tr._

[219] A still more celebrated case is the “ambulatory Polis” formed by Xenophon’s Ten Thousand.--_Tr._

[220] And in numerous Classical instances.--_Tr._

[221] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. IX, p. 860.--_Tr._

[222] In Macedonia, in the nineteenth century, Serbs, Bulgars, and Greeks all founded schools for the anti-Turkish population. If it happens that a village has been taught Serb, even the next generation consists of fanatical Serbs. The present strength of the “nations” is thus merely a consequence of previous school-policy.

[223] For Beloch’s scepticism concerning the reputed Dorian migration see his _Griechische Geschichte_, I, 2, Section VIII. [A brief account of the question, by J. L. Myres, is in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Dorians.”--_Tr._]

[224] C. Mehlis, _Die Berberfrage_ (_Archiv für Anthropologie_ 39, pp. 249, et seq.) where relations between North German and Mauretanian ceramics, and even resemblances of toponymy (rivers, mountains) are dealt with. The old pyramid buildings of West Africa are closely related, on the one hand, to the Nordic dolmens (_Hünengräber_) of Holstein and, on the other, to the graves of the Old Kingdom (some illustrations in L. Frobenius, _Der kleinafrikanische Grabbau_, 1916).

[225] _Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt_ (1886).

[226] _Geschichte der Kriegskunst_ (from 1900).

[227] Rameses III, who defeated them, portrayed their expedition in the relief of Medinet Habet. W. M. Müller, _Asien und Europa_, p. 366.

[228] Which, therefore, have discovered for themselves the nonsensical designation “aristocracy of intellect” (_Geistesadel_).

[229] Although--or should we say “thus”?--Rome accorded citizenship to freedmen, who in general were of wholly alien blood, and sons of ex-slaves were admitted to the Senate even by Appius Claudius the Censor in 310. One of them, Flavius, had already been curule ædile.

[230] See articles “Persia (history: ancient),” “Behistun,” “Cuneiform,” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., or indeed almost any work upon Babylonian and Persian antiquities.--_Tr._

[231] Sworn by Louis the German and Charles the Bald in both languages. The manuscript of the oath, however, is later--say, 950.--_Tr._

[232] “_Die ältesten datierten Zeugnisse der iranischen Sprache_” (_Zeitschr. f. vgl. Sprachf._ 42, p. 26.)

[233] See above, p. 145.

[234] Ed. Meyer, op. cit., pp. 1, et seq.

[235] Compare the absorption of the Norman conquerors into England and the subsequent development of an English aristocracy.--_Tr._

[236] For what follows, cf. Ch. VII-IX.

[237] _Geschichte des Altertums_, I, § 590, et seq.

[238] Andreas and Wackernagel, _Nachrichten der Göttingischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_ (1911), p. 1, et seq. [On the subject generally, see articles by K. Geldner, “Zend-Avesta” and “Zoroaster,” and by Ed. Meyer, “Parthia,” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[239] See, further, below.

[240] Dynasty I.--_Tr._

[241] Albertus Magnus; St. Thomas Aquinas; Grosseteste, and Roger Bacon.--_Tr._

[242] Cf. p. 105.

[243] Cf. Ch. X.

[244] See p. 60 above. The slave did not belong to the nation. On this account the enrolment of non-citizens in the army of a city, which on occasions of dire crisis was inevitable, was always felt as a profound blow to the national idea.

[245] Even in the Iliad we can perceive the tendency to the nation-feeling in the small, and even the smallest, aggregates.

[246] And she had rarely to deal with anything more formidable than a loose partial confederacy. Often Etruscan cities were in alliance with Rome against other Etruscan cities.--_Tr._

[247] It is not to be overlooked that both Plato and Aristotle in their political writings were unable to conceive of the ideal people otherwise than in the Polis form. But it was equally natural for the eighteenth-century thinkers to regard “the Ancients” as nations after the fashion of Shaftesbury and Montesquieu--it is _we_ their successors who ought not to have stayed on that note.

[248] Mommsen described the Roman Empire as a “universal Empire founded upon municipal autonomy.” And even Alexander’s empire was originally conceived, and to a great extent actually organized, in this spirit. See P. Jouguet, _L’Impérialisme macédonien_ (1926), Ch. IV.--_Tr._

[249] See p. 67.

[250] F. N. Finck, _Die Sprachstämme des Erdkreises_ (1915), pp. 29, et seq.

[251] About the end of the second century of our era.

[252] See foot-note, p. 197, et seq.--_Tr._

[253] A loose group of Edomite tribes which, with Moabites, Amalekites, Ishmaelites, and others, thus constituted a fairly uniform Hebrew-speaking population.

[254] See p. 167.

[255] Aristotle says that “philosophers are called Calani among the Indians, and Jews among the Syrians.” Exactly the same is stated by Megasthenes, the Seleucid ambassador at Pataliputra, of Brahmins and Jews.--_Tr._

[256] The district south of Lake Van, of which the capital was Arbela, the old home of the goddess Ishtar.

[257] As evidenced by the Falasha, the black Jews of Abyssinia.

[258] _Arch. f. Anthrop._, Vol. XIX.

[259] _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._ (1919).

[260] _Digesta_, 50, 15.

[261] Geffcken, _Der Ausgang des griech.-röm. Heidentum_ (1920), p. 57 [English readers may refer to the article “Neoplatonism” and shorter articles under the personal names, in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[262] See Vol. I, pp. 63, 71.--_Tr._

[263] Which we translate by “Gentiles,” but which literally means “the nations” or “peoples.”--_Tr._

[264] See the article “Nestorians,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[265] See the articles “Jews” (§ 43), “Exilarch,” and “Gaon,” _Ency. Brit._, XI. ed. In Europe, too, far into the Dispersion, there are rabbis recognized by the State as governors of their communities, such as the famous Rabbi Löw of Prague (1513-1609).--_Tr._

[266] It may not be at all fanciful to connect the Reception of “Roman” law in Germany and the rise of the doctrine of _cujus regio, ejus religio_ which played so great a part in the religious wars and treaties of our sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. At any rate, “practical politics” so-called provides an inadequate motive by itself to account for the latter. Considering it in contrast to the notion of Mortmain, and having regard to the intensity of religious belief in many of the princes who applied it, the idea appears as something much more positive than a mere formula of compromise.--_Tr._

[267] See p. 70. The “capitulations” under which until recently Europeans were exempt from the jurisdiction of Turkish courts are regarded nowadays as a right enforced by more civilized powers to protect their subjects from the laws of a less civilized state, and their abolition is a symbol of the rise of the latter to the rank of a civilized power. But originally it was quite the reverse. The first “capitulation” was sued for by France in an hour of danger when Turkish aid was essential to her. See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Capitulations.”--_Tr._

[268] See Vol. I., p. 212.

[269] The author’s meaning may perhaps be precised thus: so much of the old Magian nations as was not Arabized became fellah peoples, either outside the Magian sphere (as in Europe and India) or within it, under the Turkish (Mongol) domination, but even the old Arab-element itself was largely ripe for the change into the fellah condition when the Turks came.--_Tr._

[270] I am convinced that the nations of China which sprang up in members in the middle, Hwang-Ho region at the beginning of the Chóu dynasty, as also the regional peoples of the Egyptian Old Kingdom (which had each its own capital and its own religion, and as late as Roman times fought each other in definitely religious wars), were in their inward form more closely akin to the peoples of the West than to those of the Classical and the Arabian worlds. However, research into such fields has hitherto been conspicuous by its absence.

[271] That the dynasts themselves have contributed heavily to the catalogue of perjury and bad faith only reinforces the argument.--_Tr._

[272] His desertion of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in the Lombard war, 1176. The details of the long struggle between Frederick and Henry will be found in any fairly full history of Europe or in the respective articles devoted to them in the _Ency. Brit._, XI ed. While Frederick stood--and with real hopes as well as ideals--for the inclusive Empire, Henry through all his vicissitudes stood for Germany’s eastern expansion, the colonization of the Slavonic north-east, and the development of the Baltic.--_Tr._

[273] In mediæval hymns the cross is symbolically regarded as a tree bearing Christ as its last and grandest fruit; it is identified, indeed, with the Tree of Knowledge. (See Yrjo Hirn, _The Sacred Shrine_.)--_Tr._

[274] And every English schoolboy knows the meaning of the “Early Plantagenets.”--_Tr._

[275] Against the Swedes, 1675.--_Tr._

[276] Against the French and their German dependent allies, 1757.--_Tr._

[277] See pp. 166, et seq., and 174, et seq.

[278] Less than one per cent of the population.

[279] It is to be noted that the home of the Babylonian Culture, the ancient Sinear, plays no part of any importance in the coming events. For the Arabian Culture only the region north of Babylon, not that to south, comes into question.

[280] The victory of L. Æmilius Paullus over Perseus, 168 B.C.--_Tr._

[281] This has an important bearing also in the histories of the Western literatures. The German is written in part in Latin, and English in French.

[282] See Professor Geldner’s article “Zend-Avesta,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[283] See Wollner, _Untersuchungen über die Volksepik des Grossrussen_ (1879). [A convenient edition of the Kiev Stories is Mary Gill, _Les Légendes slaves_ (Paris, 1912).--_Tr._]

[284] The former is dated about 800, the latter about 930.--_Tr._

[285] These two figures--the one an authorized Mayor of the Palace before he was Tsar, the other a crude usurper--dominate the period of Russian history called the “Period of Troubles”--i.e., that between the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584 and the election of Michael Romanov in 1613.--_Tr._

[286] Covering, before its later extensions, Persia and Iraq to the Euphrates.--_Tr._

[287] The region south of Damascus and east of the Sea of Galilee.--_Tr._

[288] Saba (Sheba) is, roughly, the modern Yemen, though the centre of gravity of the Sabæan Kingdom may earlier have been in northern Arabia. See Dr. D. H. Müller’s article “Sabaeans” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[289] Schiele, _Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart_, I, 647.

[290] The “Minæan” and the Sabæan kingdoms were the two outstanding hegemonies of early Arabian history. Ma’in, in southern Arabia, should not be confused with the Ma’an which lies north-east of the Gulf of Akaba.--_Tr._

[291] Bent, _The Sacred City of the Ethiopians_ (London 1893), pp. 134, et seq., deals with the remains of Jeha, the inscriptions of which are dated by Glaser between the seventh and fifth centuries before Christ. See D. H. Müller, _Burgen and Schlösser Südarabiens_.

[292] Grimme, _Mohammed_, pp. 26, et seq.

[293] German Axum Expedition record (1913), Vol. II.

[294] An ancient trade-route from Persia crossed the straits of Ormus and of Bab-el-Mandeb, traversing South Arabia and terminating in Abyssinia and the Nile region. It is historically more important than the northern route over the Isthmus of Suez.

[295] So little is known as to these events by British (or any other) students that a brief record may be useful. The original Himaryites or Homerites, a people of the south-west angle of Arabia, had displaced the Sabæans in control of South Arabia in the second century B.C. The Himaryite hegemony was overthrown by invaders from Axum over the water about A.D. 300, and the Axumite rulers were, _inter alia_, kings of Hadramaut--hence the mention in the text of the Persian Gulf. But a Himaryite opposition continued, and, adopting Judaism as a counter-religion, it succeeded for a time in throwing off the Abyssinian rule. Axum, however (aided, as a Christian state, by Rome), reasserted her dominion in 525 and held it for fifty years, till an attack of Sassanid Persians displaced them again. Thereafter southern Arabia fell into the swaying chaos in which the coming of Mohammed found it.--_Tr._

[296] The capital of Saba.--_Tr._

[297] Grimme, p. 43. Illustrations of these immense ruins of Gomdan, ibid., p. 81, and reconstructions in the German Axum report.

[298] The country of Ghassan extends east of the Jordan, parallel to and inland of Palestine and Syria, approximately from Petra to the middle Euphrates.--_Tr._

[299] The Lakhmids were the ruling dynasty, from the third to the sixth century after Christ, of the realm of Hira, which ran in a strip between the Euphrates and the present Nejd coast on the one hand and the desert of Arabia on the other.--_Tr._

[300] Brockelmann, _Geschichte der arabischen Literatur_, p. 34.

[301] The whole structure of Mithraism (so far as we know it) presents strong analogies with that of a military order.--_Tr._

[302] As well as it is said 220,000 at Cyrene. At Alexandria, too, there were _émeutes_ and counter-_émeutes_.--_Tr._

[303] Roth, _Sozial- und Kulturgeschichte des Byzantinischen Reiches_, p. 15.

[304] Delbrück, _Geschichte der Kriegskunst_, II, p. 222. [For British students C. W. C. Oman’s _Art of War: Middle Ages_ will be more readily available, although Oman treats the subject more as a matter of formal military organization than does Delbrück. Neither writer deals with any special features of the change as it worked itself out in the East, both being concerned almost entirely with its Western aspects and phases. The origin of the late-Byzantine army system, as military historians are aware, is an obscure and difficult subject. By what stages, after the decadence of the legion, was the “_Landsknecht_” army of Justinian reached? Like other elements of middle-East history in the epoch of the Arabian Culture, it still awaits the full investigation that the West has already had.--_Tr._]

[305] _Gesammelte Schriften_, IV, 532.

[306] _Gefolgstreuen_ in German. The choice of an equivalent mediæval term in English is difficult, since any one that may be selected carries with it certain implications for students of feudal origins.--_Tr._

[307] Domaszewski, _Die Religion der römischen Heeres_, p. 49.

[308] The typical form, for instance, of the Swiss in their independence-battles, and of Western infantry generally in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, during the transition from hand-arm to fire-arm warfare.--_Tr._

[309] _Buccellarii_; see Delbrück, op. cit., II, 354.

[310] Georg von Frundsberg (1473-1528). Short article in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[311] _Gothic War_, IV, 26. [The same holds good for Belisarius’s armies.--_Tr._]

[312] Nisibis and Edessa in the up-country between Euphrates and Tigris are represented to-day by Nasibin (Nezib) and Urfa respectively; just to the west of them, east of the Euphrates above Sura, were the three Jewish academies, in which Talmudic Judaism took shape after the Dispersion. Kinnesrin lay just south of Aleppo. Ctesiphon is, of course, the classical city on the Tigris, still dominant under the Sassanids, and Resaina lies in the up-country south-west of Nisibis. Gundisapora is Gunder-Shapur (Jundaisapur), near the site of the old Elamite capital Susa in Arabistan.--_Tr._

[313] Not “non-existent.” It would be a misconception of the Magian world-feeling to attach a Faustian-dynamic meaning to the phrase “true God.” In combating the worship of godlings, the reality of godlings and dæmons is presupposed. The Israelite prophets never dreamed of denying the Baals, and similarly Isis and Mithras for the Early Christians, Jehovah for the Christian Marcion, Jesus for the Manichæans, are devilish, but perfectly real, powers. _Disbelieving in them_ would have had no meaning for the Magian soul--what was required was that one should not _turn to them_. To use an expression now long current, it is “Henotheism” and not Monotheism.

[314] Schürer, _Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_, III, 499; Wendland, _Die hellenistisch-römische Kultur_, p. 192.

[315] Contrast with this the exactly opposite process in Jewry before the Pseudomorphosis had begun to affect it,--to wit, the battle against the local “high places” and the concentration of sanctity in Jerusalem.--_Tr._

[316] With the result that Syncretism is presented as a mere hotchpotch of every conceivable religion. Nothing is further from the truth. The process of taking shape moved first from East to West and then from West to East.

[317] The Haoma plant symbolized the Tree of Life (Gaokerena) like the Soma plant of Brahmanism.--_Tr._

[318] Hence the expression “profaning” the mysteries, which meant, not revealing them, but bringing them outside their fane.--_Tr._

[319] J. Geffcken, _Der Ausgang des griechisch-römischen Heidentums_ (1920), pp. 197, et seq.

[320] Geffcken, op. cit., pp. 131, et seq.

[321] Geffcken, op. cit., p. 292, note 149.

[322] “_Res ipsa, quæ nunc religio Christiana nuncupatur, erat apud antiquos nec defecit ab initio generis humani, quousque Christus veniret in carnem. Unde vera religio, quæ jam erat coepit appellari Christiana_” (_Retractationes_, I, 13).

[323] The name Chaldean signifies, before the Persian epoch, a tribe; later, a religious society. See p. 175 above.

[324] A. Bertholet, _Kulturgeschichte Israels_ (1919), pp. 253, et seq. [Clear and useful English manuals are G. Moore, _Literature of the Old Testament_; R. H. Charles, _Between the Old and the New Testaments_. See also the article “Hebrew Religion” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[325] According to Williams Jackson’s _Zoroaster_ (1901).

[326] Research has treated the Chaldean, like the Talmudic, as a stepchild. The investigator’s whole attention has been concentrated on the religion of the Babylonian Culture, and the Chaldean has been regarded as its dying echo. Such a view inevitably excludes any real understanding of it. The material is not even separated out, but is dispersed in all the books on Assyrian-Babylonian religion. (H. Zimmern, _Die Keilinschriften und das alte Testament_ II; Gunkel, _Schöpfung and Chaos_; M. Jastrow, C. Bezold, etc.) On the other hand the subject is assumed by some (e.g., Bousset, _Hauptprobleme der Gnosis_, 1907) to have been exhausted.

[327] See Vol. I, p. 184.--_Tr._

[328] The fact that Chaldean science was, in comparison with Babylonian empiricism, a new thing has been clearly recognized by Bezold (_Astronomie, Himmelsschau und Astrallehre bei den Babyloniern_, 1911, pp. 17, et seq.). Its data were taken and developed by different Classical savants according to their own way of reasoning--that is, as a matter of applied mathematics, and to the exclusion of all feeling for distance.

[329] See Jastrow’s articles “Babylonian and Assyrian Religion” and “Marduk” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[330] J. Hehn, _Hymnen und Gebete an Marduk_ (1905).

[331] For Chaldeans and Persians there was no need to trouble here about proof--they had by their God conquered the world. But the Jews had only their literature to cling to, and this accordingly turned to theoretical proof in the absence of positive. In the last analysis, this unique national treasure owes its origin to the constant need of reacting against self-depreciation. [For example, the repeated restatement of the _date_ of the Messiah’s advent in the successive works of the age of the prophets.--_Tr._]

[332] Glaser, _Die Abessinier in Arabien und in Afrika_ (1895), p. 124. Glaser is convinced that Abyssinian, Pehlevi, and Persian cuneiform inscriptions of the highest importance await discovery there.

[333] The inscription and sculptures of Behistun (on an almost inaccessible cliff in the Zagros range on the Baghdad-Hamadan road) were reinvestigated by a British Museum expedition in 1904; see _The Inscription of Darius the Great at Behistun_ (London, 1907). “Thus saith Darius the King. That what I have done I have done altogether by the grace of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda and the other gods that be, brought aid to me. For this reason did Ahuramazda and the other gods that be bring aid to me because I was not hostile nor a liar nor a wrongdoer, neither I nor my family, but according to Rectitude have I ruled” (A. V. Williams Jackson, _Persia Past and Present_).--_Tr._

[334] Isaiah xl-lxvi. For the critical questions arising on Deutero-Isaiah see Dr. T. K. Cheyne’s article “Isaiah” in the _Encyclopedia Biblica_, the same scholar’s summary in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Isaiah,” or G. Moore’s summary, _Literature of the Old Testament_, Ch. XVI.--_Tr._

[335] This “King of the Banishment” (Exilarch) was long a conspicuous and politically important figure in the Persian Empire. He was only removed by Islam.

[336] As Christian and Jewish theology both do--the only difference between these is in their respective interpretations of the later development of Israelite literature (recast in Judea as the literature of Judaism), the one inflecting it towards Evangelism, the others towards Talmudism.

[337] Later it occurred to some Pharisee mind to Judaize it by interpolating chs. xxxii-xxxvii.

[338] See the articles “Tobit,” etc., in _Jewish Encyclopædia_ and _Ency. Biblica_.--_Tr._

[339] If the assumption of a Chaldean prophecy corresponding to Isaiah and Zarathustra be correct, it is to this young, inwardly cognate, and contemporary astral religion (and not to the Babylonian) that Genesis owes its amazingly profound cosmogony, just as it owes to the Persian religion its visions of the end of the world.

[340] S. Funk, _Die Entstehung des Talmuds_ (1919), p. 106.

[341] E. Sachau, _Aramäische Papyros und Ostraka aus Elephantine_ (1911).

[342] Josephus, _Antiq._, 13, 10.

[343] Much as, say, the destruction of the Vatican would be felt by the Catholic Church.

[344] See p. 198.--_Tr._

[345] Cf. p. 69.

[346] Pyrrho himself had studied under Magian priests. See, for Pyrrhonism, _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., articles “Scepticism,” “Megarian School,” “Pyrrho.”--_Tr._

[347] Schiele (_Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart_, III, 812) reverses the two latter names; this, however, does not affect the phenomenon in any way.

[348] The Cosmogony and the Law, in the Zoroastrian Scriptures.--_Tr._

[349] Bousset, _Rel. d. Jud._, p. 532.

[350] Baruch, Ezra IV (2 Esdras), the original text of John’s Revelation.

[351] For instance, the Book of Naasenes (P. Wendland, _Hellenistisch-römische Kultur_, pp. 177, et seq.); the “Mithras Liturgy” (ed. A. Dieterich); the Hermetic Pœmander (ed. Reitzenstein), the Psalms of Solomon, the Gospels of Thomas and Peter, the Pistis-Sophia, etc. [Information as to these will be found in the articles “Ophites,” “Mithras,” “Hermes Trismegistus,” “Apocalyptic Literature,” “Apocryphal Literature,” “Gnosticism,” in the _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[352] Any more than Dostoyevski’s “_Dream of a Ridiculous Person_” is so.

[353] Our definitive ideas of this early Magian vision-world we owe to the manuscripts of Turfan, which have reached Berlin since 1903. It was these which at last freed our knowledge and, above all, our criteria from the deformations due to the preponderance of Western-Hellenistic material--a preponderance that had been augmented by Egyptian papyrus finds--and radically transformed all our existing views. Now at last the pure, almost unknown, East is seen operative in all the apocalypses, hymns, liturgies, and books of edification of the Persians, Mandæans, Manichæans, and countless other sects; and primitive Christianity for the first time really takes its place in the movement to which it owes its spiritual origins (see H. Lüders, _Sitzungen der Berliner Akademie_, 1914, and R. Reitzenstein, _Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium_, 1921).

[354] Lidzbarski, _Das Johannesbuch der Mandäer_, Ch. LXVI. Also W. Bousset, _Hauptprobleme der Gnosis_ (1907) and Reitzenstein, _Das Mandäische Buch der Herrn der Grösse_ (1919), an apocalypse approximately contemporary with the oldest Gospels. On the Messiah texts, the Descent-into-Hell texts, and the Songs of the Dead see Lidzbarski, _Mandäische Liturgien_ (1920); also the Book of the Dead (especially the second and third books of the left Genza) in Reitzenstein’s _Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium_ (especially pp. 43, et seq.). [The Mandæan religion survives to-day in the region of the Shatt-el-Arab and the Karun valley or Khuzistan.--_Tr._]

[355] See Reitzenstein, pp. 124, et seq., and references there quoted.

[356] In the New Testament, of which the final redaction lies entirely in the sphere of Western-Classical thought, the Mandæan religion and the sects belonging thereto are no longer understood, and indeed everything Oriental seems to have dropped out. Acts xviii-xix, however, discloses a perceptible hostility between the then widespread John-communities and the Primitive Christians (see Dibelius, _Die urchristliche Überlieferung von Johannes dem Täufer_). The Mandæans later rejected Christianity as flatly as they had rejected Judaism. Jesus was for them a false Messiah. In their Apocalypse of the Lord of Greatness the apparition of Enosh was also announced.

[357] According to Reitzenstein (_Das Buch von Herrn der Grösse_) Jesus was condemned at Jerusalem as a John-disciple. According to Lidzbarski (_Mand. Lit._, 1920, XVI) and Zimmern (_Ztschr. d. D. Morg. Gesellschaft_, 1920, p. 429), the expression “Jesus the Nazarene” or “Nasorene,” which was later by the Christian communities referred to Nazareth (Matthew ii, 23, with a doubtful citation), really indicates the membership in a Mandæan Order.

[358] E.g., Mark vi; and then the great change, Mark viii, 27, et seq. There is no religion which has given us more honestly the tale of its birth.

[359] Similarly in Mark i, 38, et seq., when he arose in the night and sought a lonely place in order to fortify himself by prayer.

[360] The method of the present work is historical. It therefore recognizes the anti-historical as well as the historical as _a fact_. The religious method, on the contrary, necessarily looks upon itself as the _true_ and the opposite as _false_. This difference is quite insuperable.

[361] Hence Mark xiii, taken from an older document, is perhaps the purest example of his usual daily discourse. Paul (1 Thess. iv, 15-17) quotes another, which is missing in the Gospels. With these, we have the priceless--but, by commentators dominated by the Gospel tone, misunderstood--contributions of Papias, who about 100 was still in a position to collect much oral tradition. The little that we have of his work suffices amply to show us the apocalyptic character of Jesus’s daily discourses. It is Mark xiii and not the Sermon on the Mount that reproduces the real note of them. But as _his_ teaching became modified into a teaching _of Him_, this material likewise was transformed and the record of his utterances became the narrative of his manifestation. In this one respect the picture given by the Gospels is inevitably false.

[362] Jesus himself was aware of this (Matt. xxiv, 5, 11).

[363] Made more uncertain perhaps by the failure of previous prophecies that had been so confidently dated--e.g., Jeremiah xxv, 11; xxiv, 5-6; reinterpreted in Daniel vii, ix; 1 Enoch lxxxiii-xc; and again to be reinterpreted in 2 Baruch xxxvi-xl and 4 Ezra x-xii.--_Tr._

[364] The designation “Messiah (Christ)” was old-Jewish, those of “Lord” (κύριος, _divus_) and “Saviour” (σωτήρ, _Asklepios_) were east-Aramæan in origin. In the course of the pseudomorphosis “Christ” became the _name_ of Jesus, and “Saviour” the _title_; but already “Lord” and “Saviour” were titles current in the Hellenistic Emperor-worship; and in this was implicit the whole destiny of westward-looking Christianity (compare here Reitzenstein, _Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium_, p. 132, note).

[365] Acts xv; Gal. ii.

[366] Acts i, 14; cf. Mark vi.

[367] As against Luke, Matthew is the representative of this conception. His is the only Gospel in which the word “_Ecclesia_” is used, and it denotes the true Jews, in contradistinction to the masses that refuse to listen to Jesus. This is not the missionary idea, any more than Isaiah was a missionary. Community, in this connexion, means an Order within Judaism. The prescriptions of Matt. xviii, 15-20 are wholly incompatible with any general dissemination.

[368] It fell apart later into sects, amongst which were the Ebionites and the Elkazites (the latter having a strange sacred book, the Elxai; see Bousset, _Hauptprobleme der Gnosis_, p. 154). [See the articles “Ebionites” and “Sabians” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[369] Such sects were attacked in the Acts of the Apostles and in all Paul’s Epistles, and indeed there was hardly a Late Classical or Aramæan religion or philosophy which did not give rise to some sort of Jesus-sect. The danger was indeed real of the Passion story becoming, not the nucleus of a new religion, but an integrating element of all existing ones.

[370] Of this he was fully aware. Many of his deepest intuitions are unimaginable without Persian and Mandæan influences (e.g., Romans vii, 22-24; 1 Corinthians xv, 26; Ephesians v, 6, et seq., with a quotation of Persian origin. See Reitzenstein, _Das iran. Erlös.-Myst._, pp. 6, 133, et seq.). But this does not prove familiarity with Persian-Mandæan literature. The stories were spread in these days as sagas and folk-tales were amongst us. One heard about them in childhood as things of daily hearsay, but without being in the least aware of how deeply one was under their spell.

[371] The early missionary effort in the East has scarcely been investigated and is still very difficult to establish in detail. Sachau, _Chronik von Arbela_ (1915) and “_Die Ausbreitung der Christentums in Asien_” in _Abb. Pr. Akad. d. Wiss._ (1919); Harnack, _Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums_, II, 117, et seq.

[372] The researchers who argue with such over-learnedness about a proto-Mark, Source Q, the “Twelve”-source, and so on, overlook the essential novelty of Mark, which is _the first “Book” of Christendom_, plan-uniform and entire. Work of this sort is never the natural product of an evolution, but the merit of an individual man, and it marks, here if anywhere, a historical turning-point.

[373] Mark is generally _the_ Gospel; after him the partisan writings (Matthew, Luke) begin; the tone of narrative passes into that of legend and ends, beyond the Hebrew and John gospels, in Jesus-romances like the gospels of Peter and James.

[374] If the word “catholic” be used in its oldest sense (_Ignatius ad Smyrn._, 8)--namely, to signify the _sum_ of the cult-communities, _both_ the Churches were Catholic. In the East the word had no meaning. The Nestorian Church was no more a sum than was the Persian: it was a Magian unit.

[375] A brief survey of the Mary doctrine is given in article “Mary,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed. The symbolism involved in the details of the story of Mary, as told in writing and in art, is very fully gone into in Yrjo Hirn, _The Sacred Shrine_.--_Tr._

[376] Ed. Meyer, _Ursprung und Anfänge des Christentums_ (1921), pp. 77, et seq.

[377] _C._ 85-155. See the recent work of Harnack, _Marcion: Das Evangelium vom fremden Gott_ (1921). [Harnack’s article “Marcion” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., is dated 1910.--_Tr._]

[378] Harnack, op. cit., pp. 136, et seq.; N. Bonwetsch, _Grundr. d. Dogmengesch._ (1919), p. 45, et seq.

[379] This is one of the profoundest ideas in all religious history, and one that must for ever remain inaccessible to the pious average man. Marcion’s identification of the “Just” with the Evil enables him in this sense to oppose the Law of the Old Testament to the Evangel of the New.

[380] About A.D. 150. See Harnack, op. cit., pp. 32, et seq.

[381] For the notions of Koran and Logos, see below. Again as in the case of Mark, the really important question is, not what the material before him was, but how this entirely novel idea for such a book, which anticipated and indeed made possible Marcion’s plan for a Christian Bible, could arise. The book presupposes a great spiritual movement (in eastern Asia Minor?) that knew scarcely anything of Jewish Christianity and was yet remote from the Pauline, westerly thought-world. But of the region and type of this movement we know nothing whatever.

[382] Vohu Mano, the Spirit of Truth, in the shape of the Saoshyant.

[383] See the article by Harnack and Conybeare “Manichæism,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[384] Bardesanes, too, and the system of the “Acts of Thomas” are very near to him and to “John.” [See the articles “Bardaisan,” “Thomas,” and “Gnosticism,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[385] Harnack, p. 24. The break with the established Church occurred at Rome, in 144.

[386] Harnack, pp. 181, et seq.

[387] It had, like each of the other Magian religions, a script of its own, and this script steadily came to resemble the Manichæan more and more closely.

[388] Matthew xi, 25, et seq., on which see Eduard Meyer, _Urspr. u. Anf. d. Christ._, pp. 286, et seq.; here it is the old and Eastern (i.e., the genuine) form of gnosis that is described.

[389] See further, below, p. 321.

[390] As a drastic instance, Galatians iv, 24-26.

[391] Loofs, _Nestoriana_ (1905), pp. 176, et seq.

[392] The best exposition of the mass of thought common to both Churches is Windelband’s _Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1900), pp. 177, et seq.; for the dogmatic history of the Christian Church see Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_ (1914), while--unconsciously--Geffcken (_Der Ausgang des griechisch-römischen Heidentums_, 1920) gives the corresponding “dogmatic history of the Pagan Church.”

[393] Geffcken, op. cit., p. 69 [article “Neoplatonism” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._].

[394] See the following chapter.

[395] Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_, p. 165.

[396] See Vol. I, p. 209.

[397] The expression is Leo Frobenius’s (Paideuma, 1920, p. 91). [See Vol. I, p. 184.--_Tr._]

[398] The soul-stones on Jewish, Sabæan, and Islamic tombs are also called _nephesh_. They are unmistakable symbols of the “upward.” With them belong the huge storeyed stelæ of Axum which belong to the first to third centuries of our era--i.e., the great period of the early Magian religions. The giant stele, long overthrown, is the largest monolith known to art-history, larger than any Egyptian obelisk (German Axum Expedition report, Vol. II, pp. 28, et seq.).

[399] On this rests the whole theory and practice of Magian law (see p. 72 above).

[400] Isaiah xxxii, 15; 4 Ezra xiv, 39; Acts ii.

[401] Reitzenstein, _Das iran. Erlösungsmysterium_, pp. 108, et seq.

[402] Bousset, _Kyrios Christos_, p. 142.

[403] Windelband, _Gesch. d. Phil._ (1900), pp. 189, et seq.; Windelband-Bonhöffer, _Gesch. d. antiken Phil._ (1912), pp. 328, et seq.; Geffcken, _Der Ausgang des griech.-röm. Heidentums_ (1920), pp. 51, et seq.

[404] Jodl, _Geschichte der Ethik_, I, p. 58.

[405] M. Horten, _Die religiöse Gedankenwelt der Volkes im heutigen Islam_ (1917), pp. 381, et seq. By the Shiites the Logos-idea was transferred to Ali.

[406] Wolff, _Muhammedanische Eschatologie_, 3, 2, et seq.

[407] Mandæan Book of John, Ch. LXXV.

[408] Usener, _Vortr. u. Aufs._, p. 217.

[409] The “devil-worshippers” in Armenia; M. Horten in _Der neue Orient_ (March 1918). The name arose from the fact that they did not recognize Satan as a being, and accordingly derived the Evil, by a very complicated set of ideas, from the Logos itself. Under old Persian influences the Jews also busied themselves with the same problem--observe the difference between 2 Samuel xxiv, 1, and 1 Chron. xxi, 1.

[410] M. Horten, op. cit., p. xxi. This book is the best introduction to the actually existing popular religion of Islam, which deviates considerably from the official doctrines.

[411] Baumstark, _Die christl. Literaturen des Orients_, I, p. 64.

[412] Cf. p. 205. The Babylonian view of the heavens had not definitely distinguished between astronomical and atmospheric elements; e.g., the covering of the moon by clouds was regarded as a kind of eclipse. For this soothsaying the momentary _figure_ of the heavens served only the same purpose as the inspection of the victim’s liver. But the Chaldeans’ intention was to forecast the _actual_ course of the stars; here, therefore, astrology presupposed a genuine astronomy.

[413] B. Cohn, “_Die Anfangsepoche der jüd. Kalenders_” (_Sitz. Pr. Akad._, 1914). The date of the first day of Creation was on this occasion fixed by calculation from a total eclipse of the sun--of course with the aid of Chaldean astronomy. [See, in general, the articles “Chronology,” “Calendar,” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[414] The Persian notion of total time is 12,000 years. The Parsees of to-day consider A.D. 1920 as the 11,550th.

[415] M. Horten, _Die religiöse Gedankenwelt des Volkes im heutigen Islam_, p. xxvi.

[416] It shows a great gap in our research that although we possess a whole library of works on Classical religion and particularly its gods and cults, we have not one about Classical religiousness and its history.

[417] “He is in truth the conclusion and completion of the Christian Classical, its last and greatest thinker, its intellectual practitioner and tribune. This is the starting-point from which he must be understood. What later ages have made of him is another affair. His own real mind, the synthesizer of Classical Culture, ecclesiastical and episcopal authority, and intimate mysticism, could not possibly have been handed on by those who, environed by different conditions, have to deal with different tasks” (E. Troeltsch, _Augustin, die christliche Antike und das Mittelalter_, 1915, p. 7). His power, like Tertullian’s, rested also on the fact that his writings were not translated into Latin, but _thought_ in this language, the _sacred_ language of the Western Church; it was precisely this that excluded both from the field of Aramæan thought. Cf. p. 224 above.

[418] “_Inspiratio bonæ voluntatis_” (_De corr. et grat._, 3). His “good will” and “ill will” are, quite dualistically, a pair of opposite substances. For Pelagius, on the contrary, will is an _activity_ without moral quality as such; only that which is willed has the _property_ of being good or evil, and the Grace of God consists in the “_possibilitas utriusque partis_,” the freedom to will this or that. Gregory I transmuted Augustinian doctrines into Faustian when he taught that God rejected individuals because he foreknew their evil will.

[419] All the elements of the Magian metaphysic are to be found in Spinoza, hard as he tried to replace the Arabian-Jewish conceptual world of his Spanish masters (and above all Moses Maimonides) by the Western of early Baroque. The individual human mind is for him not an ego, but only a mode of the one divine attribute, the “_cogitatio_”--which is just the Pneuma. He protests against notions like “God’s Will.” His God is _pure substance_ and in lieu of the dynamic causality of the Faustian universe he discovers simply the logic of the divine _cogitatio_. All this is already in Porphyry, in the Talmud, in Islam; and to Faustian thinkers like Leibniz and Goethe it is as alien as anything can possibly be. (_Allgem. Gesch. d. Philos._ in _Kultur der Gegenwart_, I, v, p. 484, Windelband.)

[420] Here, therefore, “good” is an evaluation and not a substance.

[421] The period at which it was written corresponds to our Carolingian. Whether the latter really brought forth any poetry of like rank we do not know, but that it may possibly have done so is shown by creations like the Voluspa, Muspilli, the Heliand, and the universe conceived by John Scotus Erigena.

[422] See, for example, Bertholet, _Kulturgesch. Israels_, p. 242.

[423] Horten, op. cit., p. xii.

[424] See p. 67 above.

[425] It is almost unnecessary to say that in all religions of the Germanic West the Bible stands in a quite other relationship to the faith--namely, in that of a _source_ in the strictly historical sense, irrespective of whether it is taken as inspired and immune from textual criticism or not. The relation of Chinese thought to the canonical books is similar.

[426] The Holy Spirit, different from Ahuramazda and yet one with him, opposed to the Evil (Angra Mainyu).

[427] Identified by Mani with the Johannine Logos. Compare also Yasht 13, 31. Ahuramazda’s shining soul is the Word.

[428] _Aletheia_ (Truth) is generally employed in this way in the John Gospel, and _drug_ (= lie) is used for Ahriman in Persian cosmology. Ahriman is often shown as though a servant of the _drug_.

[429] Sura 96; cf. 80, 11 and 85, 21, where in connexion with another vision it is said: “This is a noble Koran on a treasured tablet.” The best commentary on all this is Eduard Meyer’s (_Geschichte der Mormonen_, pp. 70, et seq.).

[430] Classical man receives, in states of extreme bodily excitation, the power of unconsciously predicting future events. But these visions are completely unliterary. The Classical Sibylline books (which have no connexion with the later Christian works bearing that name) are meant to be nothing more than a collection of oracles.

[431] See p. 73.

[432] IV Ezra xiv; S. Funk, _Die Entstehung des Talmuds_, p. 17; Hirsch’s commentary on Exodus xxi, 2.

[433] Funk, op. cit., p. 86.

[434] For example, Ed. Meyer, _Urspr. u. Anf. d. Christ._, p. 95.

[435] In the West, Plato, Aristotle, and above all Pythagoras were regarded as prophets in this sense. What could be referred back to them, was valid. For this reason the succession of the heads of the schools became more and more important, and often more work was done in establishing--or inventing--them than was done upon the history of the doctrine itself.

[436] Fromer, _Der Talmud_, p. 190.

[437] We to-day confuse _authorship_ and _authority_. Arabian thought knew not the idea of “intellectual property.” Such would have been absurd and sinful, for it is the _one_ divine Pneuma that selects the individual as vessel and mouthpiece. Only to that extent is he the “author,” and it does not matter even whether he or another actually writes down the material. “The Gospel _according to_ Mark” means that Mark _vouches for_ the truth of this evangel.

[438] On the pseudonyma and anonyma of Biblical apocryphal literature the English reader will find much of interest in three small books (already referred to) of the “Home University” series: Moore, _Literature of the Old Testament_; Charles, _Between the Old and the New Testaments_; and Bacon, _The Making of the New Testament_.--_Tr._

[439] See p. 73.--_Tr._

[440] Vendidad 19, 1; here it is Zarathustra who is tempted.

[441] M. J. ben Gorion, _Die Sagen der Juden_ (1913).

[442] It is reasonable to suppose that he must through oral tradition have had a very accurate knowledge of the fundamental doctrines of the John Gospel. Even Bardesanes (d. 254), and the “Acts of St. Thomas” that originated in his circle, are very far removed indeed from Pauline doctrines, an alienation that in Mani rose to downright hostility and to the historical Jesus’s being described as an evil demon. We obtain here a glimpse into the essence of the almost subterranean Christianity of the East, which was ignored by the Greek-writing churches of the Pseudomorphosis and for that reason has hitherto escaped the attention of Church history. But Marcion and Montanus also came from eastern Asia Minor; here originated the Naasene book, basically Persian, but overlaid first with Judaism and then with Christianity; and further east, probably in the Matthew monastery of Mosul, Aphrahat wrote, about 340, those strange epistles whose Christianity the Western development from Irenæus to Athanasius left wholly unaffected. The history of Nestorian Christianity, in fact, was already beginning in the second century.

[443] For the later writings of (for example) Tertullian and Augustine remained wholly without effect save in so far as they were translated. In Rome itself even, Greek was the true language of the Church.

[444] See p. 177.--_Tr._

[445] The Faustian monk represses his evil will, the Magian the evil substance in himself. Only the latter is dualistic.

[446] The purity- and food-laws of the Talmud and the Avesta cut far deeper into everyday life than, for example, the Benedictine rule.

[447] Asmus, “Damaskios” (_Philos. Bibl._, 125 (1911)). Christian anchoritism is _later_ than pagan: Reitzenstein, “Des Athanasius Werk über das Leben des Antonius” (_Sitz. Heid. Ak._ (1914), VIII, 12).

[448] Even to the point indicated in Matt. xix, 12, which Origen followed to the letter.

[449] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Qaraites.” The outlook of these Protestants so resembled that of the Western Protestants that their name was used as a term of contempt for the latter by the Catholics, and not greatly resented. It is significant also that this movement in Jewry almost coincided in date with the vaster Reformation of Islam.--_Tr._

[450] The followers of Baal Shem above mentioned (p. 228) not to be confused with the Hasidim or Assideans of the second century.--_Tr._

[451] Wissowa, _Religion und Kulturs der Römer_, p. 493; Geffcken, pp. 4, 144.

[452] This is the metaphysical basis also of the Christian image-worship, which presently set in and of the appearance of wonder-working pictures of Mary and the Saints.

[453] See p. 60.

[454] The Nestorians protested against Mary _Theotokos_ (she who bore God), opposing to her the concept of Christ the _Theophorus_ (he who carried God in him). The deep difference between an image-loving and an image-hating religiousness is here clearly manifested.

[455] Note the “Western” outlook on the substance-questions in the contemporary writings of Proclus--his double Zeus, his triad of πατήρ, δύναμις, νοήσις or νοητόν, and so forth (Zeller, _Philosophie der Griechen_, V, pp. 857, et seq.). Proclus’s beautiful “Hymn to Athene” is a veritable Ave Maria:

“But when an evil lapse of my being puts me into bondage (And, ah, I know indeed how I am tossed about by many unholy deeds that in my blindness I have done), Be thou gracious to me, thou gentle one, thou blessing of mankind, And let me not lie upon the earth as prey to fearful punishments, For I am, and I remain, thy chattel.”

(Hymn VII, Eudociæ Aug. rel. A. Ludwich, 1897.)

[456] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Apollinaris, the Younger.”--_Tr._

[457] And Russia, too, though hitherto Russia has kept it as a buried treasure.

[458] The Christian missionary efforts of the West very generally followed the same method, maintaining the local places of prayer, and merely substituting crucifixes or relics for the idols. Gregory the Great even sanctioned the sacrifice of animals in Britain.--_Tr._

[459] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., art. “Khazars.”--_Tr._

[460] The Albigensian movement of the twelfth century.--_Tr._

[461] Hermann, _Chines. Geschichte_ (1912), p. 77.

[462] A third, “contemporary,” movement should follow in the Russian world in the first half of the coming millennium.

[463] Cf. pp. 3, et seq. and foot-note p. 3.

[464] See p. 116.

[465] “He who loves God with inmost soul, transforms himself into God” (Bernard of Clairvaux).

[466] For religious _thought_ Destiny is always a causal quantity. Epistemology knows it, therefore, only as an indistinct word for causality. Only so long as we _do not_ think upon it do we really know it.

[467] See p. 25.

[468] The distinction between the two is one of _inner_ form. A sacrifice made by Socrates is at bottom a prayer; and generally the Classical sacrifice is to be looked upon as a _prayer in bodily form_. The ejaculated prayer of the criminal, on the contrary, is a sacrifice to which fear drives him.

[469] And herein philosophy differs not in the least from soil-sprung folk-belief. Think of Kant’s category-table with its 3 × 4 units, of Hegel’s method, of Iamblichus’s triads.

[470] See p. 133.

[471] Cf. p. 24.

[472] And even so the thought has a different disposition according as it is primitive or cultured; Chinese, Indian, Classical, Magian, or Western; and even German, English, or French. In the last resort, there are not even two individuals with exactly the same method.

[473] Anatole France’s story _Le Jongleur de Notre Dame_ is something deeper than a beautiful fancy.--_Tr._

[474] See p. 33.

[475] Was it that highly civilized Crete, the outpost of Egyptian modes of thought, afforded a pattern (see p. 87)? But, after all, the numerous local and tribal gods of the primitive Thinite time (before 3000), which represented the numina of particular beast-_genera_, were essentially different in meaning. The more powerful the Egyptian deity of this preliminary period is, the more particular individual spirits (_ka_) and individual souls (_bai_) he possesses, and these hide and lurk in the various animals--Bastet in the cat, Sechmet in the lion, Hathor in the cow, Mut in the vulture (hence the human-formed _ka_ that figures behind the beast-head in the figures of the gods)--making of this earliest world-picture a very abortion of monstrous fear, filling it with powers which rage against man even after his death and which only the greatest sacrifices avail to placate. The union of the North and the South lands was represented by the common veneration of the Horus-falcon, whose first _ka_ resided in the Pharaoh of the time. Cf. Eduard Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, I, §§ 182, et seq. [See also Moret and Davy: _Des clans aux empires_ and Moret: _Le Nil et la civilisation égyptienne_ (available in English translations).--_Tr._]

[476] _Eumenides_, 126.

[477] Moreover, in the full maturity of Athens, every little girl of the upper classes was consecrated as a bear to this Artemis.--_Tr._

[478] For further information the reader may consult the articles “Demeter,” etc., in the _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.; and, for a suggestive introduction in the fewest possible words, Dr. Jane Harrison’s pamphlet, _Myths of Greece and Rome_.--_Tr._

[479] Bernoulli, _Die Heiligen der Merowinger_ (1900)--a good account of this primitive religion.

[480] For an account of Russian sectarian movements see A. P. Stanley, _Hist. of the Eastern Church_; for a summary, _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XXIII, p. 886.--_Tr._

[481] Kattenbusch, _Lehrb. d. vgl. Konfessionsk._, I (1892), pp. 234, et seq.; N. P. Milyukov, _Skizz. russ. Kulturg._ (1901) II, pp. 104, et seq.

[482] Borchardt, _Reheiligtum des Newoserrê_, I (1905). The Pharaoh is no longer an incarnation of godhead, and not yet, as the theology of the Middle Kingdom was to make him, the son of Re; notwithstanding all earthly greatness, he is small, a servant, as he stands before the god.

[483] Erman, “_Ein Denkmal memphitsiche Theologie_,” _Ber. Berl. Ak._ (1911), pp. 916, et seq.

[484] Not, of course, to be connected in any profound sense with that which emerged under the name in the Magian Culture.--_Tr._

[485] And because they were the gods of the eternal peasant, they outlived the Olympians.

[486] Even though Hesiod is two centuries nearer to the source of his Culture than the German mystic is to that of our own. See the article “Boehme,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[487] Insolent prosperity tempting Nemesis.--_Tr._

[488] The work of J. J. Bachofen in this field has recently been assembled in concentrated form under the title _Mythus von Occident und Orient_ (1926).--_Tr._

[489] Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. 41. What has been said above (p. 191) concerning the Talmudic religion applies also to the Etruscan religion by which all Italy--i.e., no less than half of the Classical field--was so deeply influenced. It lies outside the province of both the conventional “Classical” philologies and in consequence has been practically ignored, as compared with the Achæan and Doric religions. In reality (as its tombs, temples, and myths prove), it forms with them a single unit of spirit and evolution.

[490] It is immaterial whether or not Dionysus was “borrowed” from Thrace, Apollo from Asia Minor, Aphrodite from Phœnicia. It is the fact that out of the thousands of alien motives these particular few were chosen and combined in so splendid a unity that implies the fundamental newness of the creation--just as does the Mary-cult of the Gothic, although in that case the whole form-material was taken over from the East.

[491] As in De Groot’s _Universismus_ (1918), where, in fact, the systems of Taoists, Confucians, and Buddhists are handled without a qualm as _the_ religions of China. This amounts to the same as saying that the Classical religion dates from Caracalla.

[492] Conrady, in Wassiljew, _Die Erschliessung Chinas_ (1909), p. 232; B. Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, I (1919).

[493] The Shu-Ching or Canon of History is a collection of ancient annals, the Shi-King a canonical anthology of rhymed tales made by Confucius.--_Tr._

[494] Conrady, _China_, p. 516.

[495] Of which an outstanding example is the Edda.--_Tr._

[496] See article “Heliand” in _Ency. Brit._, XI edit., and works there referred to. A handy edition of the text is included in the “Reclam” series.--_Tr._

[497] This idea differs essentially from that of the Egyptian duality of the spiritual _ka_ and the soul-bird _bai_, and still more so from the Magian duality of soul-substances.

[498] O. Franke, _Studien zur Gesch. des Konfuzianischen Dogmas_ (1920), p. 202.

[499] Reference may again be made to Yrjo Hirn, _The Sacred Shrine_.--_Tr._

[500] Consider, for example, the fantastic paintings of Hieronymus Bosch. Breughel’s similar humour, too, is unthinkable without the tradition of a rank-and-file of evil creatures.--_Tr._

[501] So also in the Classical, the Homeric figures were for educated people of Hellenistic times nothing but literature, representation, artistic motive. Even for Plato’s period they were little more than this. But in 1100 B.C., Demeter and Dionysus were a fearful actuality before which men collapsed.

[502] The stern object of Roger Bacon’s science; see p. 502, foot-note.--_Tr._

[503] This is the real conclusion that emerges from Burdach’s _Reformation, Renaissance, Humanismus_ (1918).

[504] In this connexion, it is important to observe that the education-movement of Humanism took into its field modern Italian, Hebrew, etc., as well as the Classical knowledge. A Dante professorship was founded in Florence in 1373. As for the Classical itself, side by side with all the enthusiasm we find a significant note in Boccaccio, who thanks Jesus Christ for a victory over unbelief that has delivered up the _enemy’s camp_ to the victor’s enjoyment. Burkhardt, _Renaissance_, Vol. I, p. 262 (Reclam edition).--_Tr._

[505] Bezold, _Hist. Zeitschr._, 45, p. 208.

[506] Italian, “Anna Metterza.” The reference is to the St. Anne of the Louvre and the Royal Academy Diploma Gallery, London.--_Tr._

[507] Cf. Vol. I, p. 232.--_Tr._

[508] Fra Angelico and Luca Signorelli.--_Tr._

[509] The sense of such a relativity led to a mathematic (the calculus) which is literally based on the ignoring of second- and third-order magnitudes.--_Tr._

[510] See article “Mysticism” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[511] After its confirmation in 1311, the character of this festival as one of popular joy became still more marked by its association with the nascent drama (see _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., articles “Corpus Christi,” “Drama”; and Y. Hirn, op. cit., pp. 144-5).--_Tr._

[512] Or even rediscovered it. For Classical man as a spirit-filled body is one amongst many quite independent units, while Faustian man is a centre in the universe, which with its soul embraces _the whole_. But personality (individuality) means, not something separate (_einzelnes_), but something single (_einziges_).

[513] Hence it is that this sacrament has conferred a position of such immense power upon the Western priest. He receives the personal confession, and speaks personally, in the name of the Infinite, the absolution, without which life would be unbearable.

The notion of confession as a _duty_, which was finally established in 1215, first arose in England, whence came also the first confession-books (Penitentials). In England, too, originated, the idea of the Immaculate Conception, and even the _idea_ of the Papacy--at a time when Rome itself thought of it as a question of power and precedence. It is evidence of the independence of Faustian Christianity from Magian that its decisive ideas grew up in those remote parts of its field which lay beyond the Frankish Empire.

[514] The immeasurable difference between the Faustian and the Russian souls is disclosed in certain word-sounds. The Russian word for heaven is “_nyebo_,” which contains in its _n_ a negative element. Western man looks up, the Russian looks horizontally into the broad plain. The death-impulse, too, of the respective souls is distinguishable, in that for the West it is the passion of drive all-ways into infinite space, whereas for Russians it is an expressing and expanding of self (_Sichentäussern_) till “it” in the man becomes identical with the boundless plain itself. It is thus that a Russian understands the words “man” and “brother.” He sees even mankind as a plane. The idea of a Russian’s being an astronomer! He does not see the stars at all, he sees only the horizon. Instead of the vault he sees the down-hang of the heavens--something that somewhere combines with the plain to form the horizon. For him the Copernican system, be it never so mathematical, is spiritually contemptible.

While our German “_Schicksal_” rings like a trumpet call, “_Sud’bá_” is a genuflection. There is no room for the upstanding “I” beneath this almost flat-roofed heaven. That “_All are responsible for all_”--the “it” for the “it” in this boundlessly extended plain--is the metaphysical fundament of all Dostoyevski’s creation. That is why Ivan Karamasov must name himself murderer although another had done the murder. The criminal is the “unfortunate,” the “wretch”--it is the utter negation of Faustian personal responsibility. Russian mysticism has nothing of that upstriving inwardness of Gothic, of Rembrandt, of Beethoven, which can swell up to a heaven-storming jubilation--its god is not the azure depth up above. Mystical Russian love is love of the plain, the love of brothers under equal pressure all along the earth, ever along and along; the love of the poor tortured beasts that wander on it, the love of plants--never of birds and clouds and stars. The Russian “_volya_,” our “will,” means principally non-compulsion, freedom not _for_ something but _from_ something, and particularly freedom from compulsion to personal doing. Free-will is seen as a condition in which no one else can command “it,” and in which, therefore, one may give way to one’s own disposition. “_Geist_,” “_esprit_,” “spirit,” go thus: ↗; the Russian “_duch_” goes thus: ↳. What sort of a Christianity will come forth one day from this world-feeling?

[515]

_“Und wenn die Welt voll Teufel wär’ Und wollten uns verschlingen So fürchten wir uns nimmermehr Es soll uns doch gelingen.”_

[516] And, as the secession of a reformed Church necessarily transforms the parent Church, there was a _Magian counter-reformation_ also. In the _Decretum Gelasii_ (_c._ 500, Rome) even Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and Lactantius, and in the Synod of Byzantium (543) Origen, were declared heretical.

[517] Boehmer, _Luther im Lichte der neueren Forschung_ (1918), pp. 54, et seq.

[518] See, for instance, H. T. Buckle, _Hist. Civilization in England_, Vol. III, ch. iv, for the Scottish outlook, which at times attributed all this horror, not even to an anti-God, but to God himself. “Consider, who is the contriver of these torments. There have been some very exquisite torments contrived by the wit of men ... but all these fall as far short of the torments ye are to endure as the wisdom of man falls short of that of God.... Infinite wisdom has contrived that evil” (_The Great Concern of Salvation_, by T. Halyburton, 1722).--_Tr._

[519] M. Osborn, _Die Teufelsliteratur des 16. Jahrh._ (1893).

[520] Clocks being an outstanding example. See Vol. I, p. 15, foot-note.--_Tr._

[521] The famous Bishop of Lincoln (1175-1253), scholar and philosopher, scientist and statesman--the British Oresme.--_Tr._

[522] A clear summary of Grosseteste’s, Pierre de Maricourt’s, and Roger Bacon’s work and outlook will be found in Ch. ix of E. Gilson’s short manual, _La Philosophie au Moyen Âge_ (Paris, 1925). _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., may also be consulted for Roger Bacon, but the article “Grosseteste” deals almost entirely with the bishop’s political and ecclesiastical career.--_Tr._

[523] M. Baumgartner, _Gesch. der Philos. des Mittelalters_ (1915), pp. 425, 571, 620, et seq. [Brief account in Ch. xi (3) of Gilson’s manual above cited.--_Tr._]

[524] See Ch. XIV below.--_Tr._

[525] Nigantha. See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Jains.”--_Tr._

[526] 542. See p. 197.

[527] Mahommedanism must be regarded as an eccentric heretical form of Eastern Christianity. This in fact was the ancient mode of regarding Mahommet. He was considered, not in the light of the founder of a new religion, but rather as one of the chief heresiarchs of the Church. Among them he is placed by Dante in the “Inferno.” Dean Stanley, _Eastern Church_ (1861), Lecture VIII.--_Tr._

[528] Krumbacher, _Byzant. Literaturgesch._, p. 12.

[529] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., under these names.--_Tr._

[530] Not to say the twentieth.--_Tr._

[531] To which may be added Edinburgh.--_Tr._

[532] πρὸς τὴν πειθὼ τῶν πολλῶν, _Metaphysics_ XI, 8, p. 1074 (Bekker) 13.--_Tr._ {sic--XII, 1074b 1-5}

[533] Caliphs like Al Maimun (813-33) and the last Ommayads would have entirely approved of similar measures in Islam. In those times there was a club in Baghdad in which Christians, Jews, Moslems, and Atheists debated, and appeals to the authority of Bible or Koran were “out of order.”

[534] Whereas “_virtù_” in Dante always carries a connotation of vital force, as also does the older English use of the word; e.g., in Chaucer’s “of which vertue engendred is the flour,” (_Canterbury Tales_, Prol. 4) and in the Bible (Mark v, 30). In Mediæval Latin “_virtutes_” is used for miracles.--_Tr._

[535] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Jains.”--_Tr._

[536] E.g., “Given eye and visible object, visual consciousness arises; the conjunction of the three is contact; whereby conditioned, arises feeling; whereby conditioned, arises perception....” Majjima Nikhaya, I, 111 (quoted by Mrs. Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_).--_Tr._

[537] Gercke-Norden, _Einleit. in die Altertumswiss._, II, 210.

[538] Compare the renewed controversy as to Transubstantiation in the English Church, 1926-8, in which a bishop actually proposed that physical tests could be applied to the altar-miracle.--_Tr._

[539] Which was ordered no less than four times in the decade 58-49.

[540] Horace’s fine lady, Leuconoë.--_Tr._

[541] It is perhaps possible for us to make some guess already as to these forms, which (it is self-evident) must lead back to certain elements of Gothic Christianity. But be this as it may, what is quite certain is that they will not be the product of any literary taste for Late-Indian or Late-Chinese speculation, but something of the type, for example, of Adventism and suchlike sects.

[542] Arnim, _Stoic. vet. fragm._, 537.

[543] See p. 202.

[544] The Lü-shi Chun-tsiu of Lü-pu-Wei (d. 237 B.C., Chinese Augustan Age) is the first monument of this syncretism, of which the final deposit was the ritual work _Li-ki_ of the Han period (B. Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, I, 93).

[545] M. Horten, _Die religiöse Gedankenwelt des Volkes im heutigen Islam_ (1917).

[546] 1018-78; cf. Dieterich, _Byzant. Charakterköpfe_ (1909), p. 63. [Or _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Psellus.”--_Tr._]

[547] It was only in old age and after long and heavy warring that both these Cæsars gave themselves up to a mild and weary piety, and both of them held aloof from the more definite religions. From the point of view of dogma, Asoka was no Buddhist; what he did was to understand the currents and take them under his protection (Hillebrandt, _Altindien_, p. 143). [Asoka’s life is dealt with in several of the works of Rhys Davids; for example, Ch. xv of his _Buddhist India_.--_Tr._]

[548] In so far as it is permissible to reckon Mithraism as Classical at all--for it is really a religion of the Magian Spring.

[549] De Groot, _Universismus_ (1918), p. 134.

[550] P. 169.

[551] See the article “Maimonides” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[552] Fromer, _Der Talmud_, p. 217. The “red cow” and the ritual of anointing a Jewish king were treated in this work with the same seriousness as the most important provisions of private law. [See J. and J. Tharaud, _Petite Histoire des Juifs_, Ch. I (1927).--_Tr._]

[553] See, for the following paragraphs, the articles “Jews,” “Hebrew Religion,” “Hebrew Literature,” “Kabbalah,” “Qaraites,” etc., in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[554] Strunz, _Gesch. der Naturwiss. im Mittelalter_, p. 89.

[555] Only with Nicolaus Cusanus was this state of things reversed.

[556] P. 174.

[557] The reader is recommended to study, in the light of all this, recent literature of the type of Hajim Bloch’s _Golem_ and the works of the brothers Tharaud.--_Tr._

[558] See pp. 259, et seq.; 174, et seq.

[559] P. 127.

[560] P. 48.

[561] Prague contains a veritable corpus of commentary upon these pages.--_Tr._

[562] A.D. 132. See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XV, p. 402, and Vol. III, p. 395.--_Tr._

[563] Instances--besides that of Mithradates and the Cyprus massacre (p. 198) quoted above--are the Sepoy Mutiny in India, the Boxer Rebellion in China, and the Bolshevist fury of Jews, Letts, and other alien peoples against Tsarist Russia.

[564] P. Levertoff, _Die religiöse Denkweise der Chassidim_ (1918), pp. 128, et seq.; M. Buber, _Die Legende des Baalschem_ (1907). [Brief account in J. and J. Tharaud, _Petite histoire des Juifs_, Ch. vii.--_Tr._]

[565] Levertoff, op. cit., p. 136.

[566] O. Weininger, _Taschenbuch_ (1919), above all pp. 19, et seq.

[567] Their ship-building was in Roman times more Classical than Phœnician, their state was organized as a Polis, and their educated people, like Hannibal, were familiar with Greek.

[568] See p. 260, et seq.

[569] Cf. p. 3 and foot-note.

[570] And not until women cease to have race enough to have or to want children, not until they cease to _be_ history, does it become possible for them to make or to copy the history of men. Conversely, it is deeply significant that we are in the habit of calling thinkers, doctrinaires, and humanity-enthusiasts of anti-political tendency “old women.” They wish to imitate the other history, the history of woman, although they--cannot.

[571] No exact equivalent exists in common English for the German word “_Stand_.” “Aristocracy” is too narrow, as under most aspects the clergy and under some even the _Tiers_ have to be reckoned in. “Class” fails because, for logical completeness, it has to be stretched so as to bring in the qualitatively unclassed as a distinct category. (A whole social history is contained in the use of these and similar words at different periods.) The word “Estate” itself is used nowadays for the “masses” (“Fourth Estate” = “Proletariat”), but this very use, by Socialists, is an assertion that the masses, as workers, possess a qualitative peculiarity and condition of their own, and the word thus continues to connote ideas of differentiation, specific constitution, and oriented outlook. It may, therefore, be employed here without fear of misunderstanding or reproach of pedantry.--_Tr._

[572] Cf. pp. 120, et seq.

[573] Mitteis, _Reichsrecht und Volksrecht_ (1891), p. 63.

[574] Sohm, _Institutionen_ (1911), p. 614. [_Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XXIII, pp. 540-1.--_Tr._]

[575] This principle formed the basis of the dynastic-idea of the Arabian world (Ommayads, Comneni, Sassanids), which is so hard for us to grasp. When a usurper had seized a throne, he hastened to marry one or another of the female members of the blood-community and so prolonged the dynasty; of law-made succession rights there was no question, nor under this idea could there be. (See also J. Wellhausen, _Ein Gemeinwesen ohne Obrigkeit_ (1900).)

[576] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XXIII, p. 574.--_Tr._

[577] See p. 18.

[578] An inversion of Clausewitz’s famous expression that war is a continuation of policy by other means. (_On War_, I, i, § 24).--_Tr._

[579] Not excluding art, although we are not _conscious_ of them save through deduction from art-_history_.

[580] Original: “_Sie liegen im gesteigerten Dasein von Einzelnen und Kreisen, eben in dem, was soeben ‘Dasein in Form’ genannt worden ist, und durch diese Höhe des Geformtseins erst die Kultur repräsentirt._”

[581] So in the German, but see foot-note p. 329. “_Stand_” would have expressed the sense better.--_Tr._

[582] R. Fick, _Die soziale Gliederung im nordöstlichen Indien zu Buddhas Zeit_ (1897), p. 201; K. Hillebrandt, _Alt-Indien_ (1899), p. 82. [Also the article “Brahmanism,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[583] See Vol. I, p. 157.--_Tr._

[584]

_Got hât driu leben geschaffen Gebûre, ritter, phaffen._

[Note the collective _ge-_ attached to the first-named.--_Tr._]

[585] The ease with which Bolshevism extinguished the four so-called estates or classes of Petrine Russia--nobles, merchants, small townspeople, and peasants--shows that these were mere imitations and administrative conveniences, and destitute of all symbolism--for symbolism no power on earth can choke. They correspond to the outward differences of rank and possessions that existed in the Visigothic and Frankish Kingdoms, and--as glimpses afforded by the earliest parts of the Iliad show--in Mycenæan times. It is reserved for the future to develop a true nobility and clergy in Russia.

[586] As a treaty of reciprocal possession by the two parties which is made effective by the reciprocal use of their sex-properties.

[587] Oldenberg, _Die Lehre der Upanishaden_ (1915), p. 5.

[588] P. 124.

[589] “So, then, because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue thee out of my mouth.”

[590] P. 4, et seq.

[591] The case of Egypt is of course similar.--_Tr._

[592] Pp. 272, et seq.

[593] _Jenseits von Gut und Böse_, § 260.

[594] In contrast, the Spanish word “_Hidalgo_” means “son of somebody.”--_Tr._

[595] Conversely, it can successfully be controverted--and often has been so in the Chinese and Classical, Indian and Western philosophies--but it does not get abolished.

[596] The possession of movable things (food, equipment, arms) comes later, and is of much lower symbolic weight. It occurs widely in the animal world. The bird’s nest, on the contrary, is a property of plantlike kind.

[597] Property in this most significant sense--the having grown up with something--refers therefore less to the particular person than to the family tree to which he belongs. In every quarrel within a peasant or even within a princely family, this is the deep and violent element. The master for the time being holds possession only in the name of the family line. Hence, too, the terror of death without heirs. _Property also is a Time-symbol_, and consequently it is closely related to marriage, which is a firm plantlike intergrowth and mutual possession of two human beings, so real as to be even reflected in an increasing facial similarity.

[598] See p. 248.

[599] See these headings in _Ency. Brit._, XI. ed.--_Tr._

[600] After death the teachers of error are excluded from the eternal bliss of the text-book and cast into the purgatorial fires of foot-notes, whence, purged by the intercession of the believer, they ascend into the paradise of the paragraphs.

[601] Black Jews, who are smiths to a man.

[602] The genuinely primitive Mir, contrary to the assertions of enthusiastic socialists and pan-slavists, dates only from after 1600, and has been abolished since 1861. Here the soil is _communal_ soil, and the villagers are as far as possible held fast, in order to ensure that the tilling of this soil shall cover the demands of taxation.

[603] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XI, pp. 94, 786, or any histories of German literature.--_Tr._

[604] See, further, below.

[605] Brentano, _Byzant. Volkswirtschaft_ (1917), p. 15.

[606] Even I-wang (934-909) was obliged to leave conquered territories to his vassals, who put in counts and reeves of their own choice.

[607] See H. Delbrück, _Gesch. der Kriegskunst_, Vol. II, Book I, Ch. x; or C. W. C. Oman, _Art of War: Middle Ages_, Ch. i.--_Tr._

[608] The slave in the Classical sense disappears automatically and completely in these centuries--one of the most significant indications that the Classical world-feeling, and with it its economic feeling, were extinct.

[609] Thus, later, under Justinian, Belisarius could furnish seven thousand cavalry from his own domains for the Gothic War. Very few German princes could have done so much in Charles V’s time. [The last of such armies in Western history was the army of the House of Condé in the seventeenth century. These centuries of ours “correspond” with the period that set in with Justinian.--_Tr._]

[610] Pöhlmann, _Röm. Kaiserzeit_ (Pflugk-Harttungs _Weltgesch._, I, pp. 200, et seq.).

[611] See p. 286.

[612] In spite of Ed. Meyer (_Gesch. d. Altertums_, I, § 243).

[613] Our marshal and the Chinese _sse-ma_, chamberlain and _Chen_, high steward and _ta-tsai_, high bailiff and _nan_, earl and _peh_ (the Chinese ranks as in Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, p. 61, et seq.). Precisely corresponding Egyptian grades in Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. des Altertums_, I, § 222; Byzantine in the “_Notitia Dignitatum_” (derived in part from the Sassanid Court). In the Classical city-states certain official titles of ancient origin suggest court functions (Colacretæ, Prytanes, Consuls). See further below.

[614] Hardy, _Indische Religionsgesch._, p. 260.

[615] M. Granet, _Coutumes matrimoniales de la Chine antique, T’oung Pao_ (1912), pp. 517, et seq.

[616] The tournament was an institution in the other, western, half of the Magian world as well.--_Tr._

[617] The life of John Chrysostom is an instance.

[618] Another example (beloved of artists) stands to this day in the town of San Gimigniano, which is almost nothing but a group of family towers ranging up to 150 ft. in height.--_Tr._

[619] Ambrogio Spinola is a case in point.--_Tr._

[620] The memoirs of the Duc de Saint Simon give a vivid picture of this evolution.

[621] P. 75.

[622] Corresponding to our seventeenth century.

[623] K. J. Neumann, _Die Grundherrschaft der römischen Republik_ (1900); Ed. Meyer, _Kl. Schriften_, pp. 351, et seq.

[624] A. Rosenberg, _Studien zur Entstehung der Plebs_, Herm. XLVIII (1913), pp. 359, et seq.

[625] Pp. 102, et seq.

[626] See pp. 159, et seq.

[627] Pp. 170, et seq.

[628] See Vol. I, pp. 136, et seq.--_Tr._

[629] Hence such codes throw out the privileges of nobility and clergy and sustain those of money and intellect, and display a frank preference for movable as against real property.

[630] Pp. 75, et seq. The corresponding attempt of the absolutist Stuarts to introduce Roman Law into England was defeated chiefly by the Puritan jurist Coke (d. 1634)--yet another proof that the spirit of laws is always a party-spirit.

[631] See pp. 65, et seq.

[632] Above all in connexion with divorce, in which the civil and the ecclesiastical views _both_ hold good, literally side by side.

[633] See p. 330.--_Tr._

[634] Thus come about the much satirized forms of the “patrol-” or “barrack-state,” as opponents call it with an unintelligent scorn. Similar points of view appear also in Chinese and Greek constitutional theories (O. Franke, _Studien zur Geschichte des konfuzianischen Dogmas_ (1920), pp. 211, et seq.; Pöhlmann, _Geschichte der sozialen Frage und der Sozialismus in der antiken Welt_ (1912)). On the other hand, the political tastes of, for example, Wilhelm von Humboldt, who as a Classicist opposed the individual to the State, belong, not to political history at all, but to literature. For what he looked at was, not the capacity of the State to thrive in the real State-world around it, but its private existence within itself, without regard to the fact that such an ideal could not endure for an instant in the face of a neglected outer situation. It is a basic error of the ideologues that, in concentrating on the private life and referring to it the whole inner structure of the State, they entirely ignore the latter’s position in point of outward power, though this in fact completely conditions its freedom for the inward development. The difference between the French and the German Revolutions, for example, consists in the fact that the one commanded the external situation and _therewith_ the internal also, while the other commanded neither and was foredoomed to farce.

[635] Which is most definitely _not_ identical with economic history in the sense of the materialist historian. More of this in the next chapter.

[636] It is to be noted that the author uses the terms “horizontal” and “vertical” here in the reverse sense to that in which they commonly figure in present-day _political_ literature, although in _economic_ works the usage is the same as that of the text.--_Tr._

[637] Attention is drawn to this phrase, so as to avoid misconceptions as to the meaning of “subject” in the sequel.--_Tr._

[638] Compare the position of the aristocratic families of the South in the history of the United States up to 1850-60.--_Tr._

[639] For in those centuries the high dignities of the Church were invariably given to the nobility of Europe, who put the political qualities of the blood at her service. From this school in turn emanated statesmen like Richelieu, Mazarin, and Talleyrand, to name but a few.

[640] See p. 180.

[641] I.e., Domesday Book.--_Tr._

[642] See p. 350.

[643] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. a. Altertums_, I, § 244.

[644] Even by Chinese critics. See, however, Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, I, pp. 61, et seq.; Conrady, _China_, p. 533.

[645] See pp. 349, et seq.

[646] “_Compotus_,” “_contrarotulus_” (the counter-roll retained for checking), “_quittancia_,” “_recordatum_.”

[647] See p. 279.

[648] “For the ruler of the Middle there is no foreign land” (Kung-yang). “The heaven speaks not; it causes its thoughts to be promulgated by a man” (Tung Chung-shu). His errors affect the whole cosmos and bring about cataclysms in Nature (O. Franke, _Zur Geschichte des konfuzianischen Dogmas_ (1920), pp. 212, et seq., 244, et seq.). Such mystic universalism was completely alien to Indian and Classical state-notions.

[649] It must not be forgotten that the immense domains of the Church had become hereditary fiefs of the bishops and archbishops, who were no more disposed than the lay peers to permit interferences on the part of the overlord.

[650] After the overthrow of the Tyrannis, _c._ 500, the two regents of the Roman patriciate bear the title _prætor_ or _judex_. But it seems to me probable that these go back beyond the Tyrannis and even the preceding oligarchic period into that of the kingship proper, and that as court-offices they have the same origin as our _Herzog_, duke (_præ-itor_); _Heerwart_, in Athens polemarch; and _Graf_, earl (“_Ding-graf_,” hereditary arbiter, in Athens archon). The name “_consul_” (from 366) is philologically thoroughly archaic, and therefore implies no new creation, but the renascence of a title (king’s adviser?) which oligarchic sentiment had long repudiated.

[651] Beloch, _Griechische Geschichte_, I, 1, pp. 214, et seq.

[652] The Spartiates mustered in the best period of the sixth century some 4000 warriors, out of a total population of nearly 300,000, including Periœci and Helots (Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, III, § 264). The Roman families must at that time have been of about the same strength relatively to the _clientela_ and the Latins.

[653] Men’s messes. See the article Συσσίτια in Smith’s _Dictionary of Classical Antiquities._--_Tr._

[654] Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alt._, I, § 264.

[655] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, I, § 267, et seq.

[656] See Ehrenberg, _Die Rechtsidee im frühen Griechentum_ (1921), pp. 65, et seq.

[657] P. 18.

[658] Pp. 171, et seq.

[659] P. 181, et seq.

[660] F. Cumont, _Mysterien des Mithra_ (1910), pp. 74, et seq. The Sassanid government, which about A.D. 300 changed from the feudal union to the aristocratic State, was in all respects the pattern for Byzantium in ceremonial, in the knightly character of its Empire, in administrative management, and above all in the type of its Ruler. Cf. also A. Christensen, _L’Empire des Sassanides, le peuple, l’état, la cour_ (Copenhagen, 1907).

[661] Ed. Meyer, _Kl. Shriften_, p. 146.

[662] See p. 243.

[663] Krumbacher, _Byzant. Literaturgesch._, p. 918.

[664] A bright light is thrown upon the formation of this picture by the fact that the descendants of the repeatedly overthrown dynasties of Hia and Shang reigned in the states of Ki-Sung throughout the Chóu period (Schindler, _Das Priestertum im alten China_, I, p. 30). This shows, firstly, that the picture of the Empire was mirrored back on some earlier or even perhaps a contemporary eminence of these states; and, secondly and above all, that here too “dynasty” was not what we currently mean by the name, but followed some quite different idea of the family. We may compare the fiction which made the German King, who was always chosen on Frankish territory and crowned in the sepulchral chapel of Charlemagne, into a “Frank,” so that if circumstances had been different, there might have evolved the notion of a Frankish dynasty running from Charles to Conradin (see Amira, _German. Recht_ in Herm. Paul, _Grundriss_, III, p. 147, note). From the Confucian age of enlightenment this picture became the basis of a State-theory, and later still it was turned to account by the Cæsars (p. 313).

[665] O. Franke, _Studien zur Gesch. d. Konfuz. Dogmas_, pp. 247, 251.

[666] An illuminating example is the “personal union” of the Ki and Tseng states, contested as contrary to law (Franke, op. cit., p. 251).

[667] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, I, § 281.

[668] G. Busolt, _Griech. Staatskunde_ (1920), pp. 319, et seq. U. von Wilamowitz (_Staat und Gesellschaft der Griechen_, 1910, p. 53), in disputing the existence of the patriarchal kingdom, misunderstands the immense difference between the conditions of the eighth century, indicated in the Odyssey, and those of the tenth.

[669] A. Rosenberg, _Der Staat der alten Italiker_, pp. 75, et seq.

[670] Estate or Class was the basis, too, of the two great political associations in Byzantium, which are quite wrongly described as “Circus parties.” These Blues and Greens called themselves “Demoi” and had their regular leaders. The circus was simply like the Palais Royal of 1789, the scene of public manifestations, and behind them were the class-associations of the Senate. When in 520 Anastasius I gave effect to the Monophysite tendency, the Greens sang orthodox hymns all day there, and so forced the Emperor publicly to cry off. The Western counterpart to this is formed by the Parisian parties under the “three Henries” (1580), the Guelphs and Ghibellines of Savonarola’s Florence, and above all the insurgent faction in Rome under Pope Eugene IV. The suppression of the Nika Rebellion by Justinian in 532 was thus also the foundation of State-absolutism _vis-à-vis_ the Estates.

[671] This contrast gives rise to a corresponding contrast in idea of colonization. Whereas, e.g., the Prussian sovereigns invited settlers to their _land_ (Salzburg Protestants, French Huguenots), Gelon forcibly transferred the populations of whole cities into Syracuse, which thus became the first megalopolis of the Classical world (_c._ 480).

[672] The Greek lecythi found in graves on the Esquiline date form this period.

[673] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 242.

[674] W. Schulze, _Zur Geschichte lateinischen Eigennamen_, pp. 379, et seq., 580, et seq.

[675] See p. 351.

[676] This is seen also in the relation of the _Pontifex Maximus_ to the _Rex Sacrorum_--the latter with the three great Flamens to the kingship, the Pontifices and the Vestals to the aristocracy.

[677] See p. 62, et seq.

[678] P. 173, et seq.

[679] This is clearly to be seen from Wilcken, _Grundzüge der Papyruskunde_ (1912), pp. 1, et seq.

[680] Ed. Meyer, _Cæsars Monarchie_ (1918), p. 308.

[681] Plutarch and Appian describe the masses of humanity that moved in by all the roads of Italy to vote on Tiberius Gracchus’s land-bills. But this in itself shows that nothing of the sort had ever happened before; and immediately after his violence upon Octavius, Tiberius Gracchus saw downfall staring him in the face because the masses had streamed off home again and were not to be assembled a second time. In Cicero’s day a Comitia often consisted only in speeches by a few politicians, without participation by others; but never did it occur to a Roman to transfer the place of voting to the residence of the individual voter--nor even to the Italians when they were fighting for citizenship in 90 B.C. So strong was the feeling of the Polis.

[682] In the Western dynasty-states the domestic law of each is valid for its _territory_ and applies therefore to all persons present therein, irrespective of allegiance. In the city-state, on the contrary, the validity of its domestic law for a person arises from that person’s possession of citizenship; _civitas_, therefore, means infinitely more than present-day nationality, for without it a man was without rights at all--as a “person,” non-existent.

[683] See p. 60.

[684] Gercke-Norden, _Einl. i. d. Alt.-Wiss._, II, p. 202.

[685] Busolt, _Griech. Geschichte_, II, pp. 346, et seq.

[686] Cf. pp. 282 and 305. Fronde and Tyrannis have as intimate a connexion with Puritanism--the same epochal phase, but in the religious instead of the political world--as the Reformation with the aristocratic State, and the “Second Religiousness” with Cæsarism.

[687] G. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, pp. 297, et seq.

[688] Beloch, _Griech. Geschichte_, I, 1, p. 354.

[689] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, § 281.

[690] Ibid., §§ 280, et seq.

[691] On the means taken to secure the succession, cf. p. 379.

[692] Ed. Meyer, op. cit., § 286.

[693] Ibid., § 283. A. Erman, _Die Mahnworte eines ägyptischen Propheten_ (_Sitz. Preuss. Akad._), 1919, pp. 804, et seq.

[694] S. Plath, _Verfassung und Verwaltung Chinas_ (_Abb. Münch. Ak._, 1864), p. 97, O. Franke, _Studien z. Gesch. d. Konfuz. Dogmas_, pp. 255, et seq.

[695] After armed rebellion.--_Tr._

[696] The fifty-year interval of these critical points, which is seen with special distinctness in the clear historical structure of the Baroque, but is recognizable also in the sequence of the three Punic Wars, is yet another hint that the Cosmic flowings in the form of human lives upon the surface of a minor star are not self-contained and independent, but stand in deep harmony with the unending movedness of the universe. In a small but noteworthy book, R. Mewes, _Die Kriegs- und Geistesperioden im Völkerleben unde Verkündigung des nächsten Weltkrieges_ (1896), the relation of those war-periods with weather-periods, sun-spot cycles, and certain conjunctures of the planets is established, and a great war foretold accordingly for the period 1910-20. But these and numerous similar connexions that come within the reach of our senses (cf. pp. 5, et seq.) veil a secret that we have to respect and not to infringe with causal expositions or mystical brain-spectres.

[697] See C. von B(inder)-K(rieglstein), _Geist und Stoff im Kriege_ (1896); F. N. Maude, _War and the World’s Life_ (1907), and other works by the same author; also, in more summary terms, the articles “Army” and “French Revolutionary Wars” by the present translator in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[698] “Rule, Britannia” is an eighteenth-century product.--_Tr._

[699] For this, and what follows, see my _Preussentum und Sozialismus_, pp. 31, et seq.

[700] Mr. Asquith (Lord Oxford) was the first British Prime Minister to be officially so styled.--_Tr._

[701] “Landed” and “funded” interests (J. Hatschek, _Engl. Verfassungsgeschichte_, 1913, pp. 589, et seq.). Walpole, the organizer of the Whig party after 1714, used to describe himself and Townshend as “the Firm;” and this “firm” with various changes of proprietorship governed without limitation till 1760.

[702] R. von Pöhlmann, _Griech. Gesch._ (1914), pp. 223-45.

[703] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._ V § 809. If Latin became a literary language, only very late--after Alexander--the only deduction to be made from the fact is that under the Tarquins Greek and Etruscan must have been in general use--which, after all, goes without saying for a city that was of a size and position to have relations with Carthage; that waged war in alliance with Cyme and made use of the Treasury of Massalia at Delphi; whose standard weights and measures were Dorian; whose mode of warfare was Sicilian; and whose walls contained a large foreign colony. Livy (IX, 36), following older statements, observes that about 300 the Roman boy was still brought upon Etruscan culture, as he was later on Greek. The ancient form “Ulixes” for Odysseus shows that the Homeric sagas were not only known, but popularly known here (cf. p. 284). The provisions of the Twelve Tables (_c._ 450) agree with the more or less contemporary law of Gortyn in Crete (cf. p. 63), not merely as to substance, but even stylistically--so exactly that the Roman patricians who drew them up must have been entirely at home with juristic Greek.

[704] This measure--a usurpation of the administration by the “nation in arms”--corresponds to the setting-up of Consular Tribunes in Rome in the military disturbances of 438.

[705] According to B. Niese. Modern investigators are right in the view that the Decemvirate was at first intended to be temporary; but the question is--what were the views of the party that backed them concerning the _new_ constitutional order that was to follow. It was on that that a crisis had inevitably to come.

[706] A. Wahl, _Vorgeschichte d. franz. Revolution_, II (1907); this work is the only presentation of the subject from the world-historical point of view. All Frenchmen, even the most modern, such as Aulard and Sorel, see things from one or another partisan angle. It is materialistic nonsense to talk of economic causes for a Revolution like this. Even the peasantry was better off than in most other countries, and in any case it was not among them that it began. It was amongst the _educated_ that the catastrophe started, the educated of _all_ the classes--in the high nobility and the clergy even sooner than in the higher bourgeoisie, because the course of the first assembly of Notables (1787) had disclosed the possibility of radically reshaping the form of government according to class-desires.

[707] Even the highly provincial March Revolution of 1848 in Germany was a purely urban matter; hence the vanishingly small proportion of the population involved as participants.

[708] Hence also the exclusive bourgeois character of the National Guard in France from 1815 to 1851, the period between two phases of popular Tyrannis. In the _coup d’état_ by which Napoleon III seized the throne, Paris was filled with regular troops, and the National Guard was forbidden to assemble on pain of death.--_Tr._

[709] Pp. 97, and 305.

[710] See pp. 348.

[711] J. Hatschek, _Engl. Verfassungsgesch._, p. 588.

[712] On the other side of the Channel, it is well known that the Rothschild fortune was founded in a dramatic play upon the varying news from the front in Belgium.

In the second phase of the Franco-German War of 1870-1 the bankers of Frankfurt took up holdings in the loans floated by the French Government of National Defence.--_Tr._

[713] But even during the Reign of Terror in the middle of Paris, there flourished the establishment of Dr. Belhomme, in which members of the highest aristocracy ate and drank and danced out of all danger for so long as they could pay (G. Lenôtre, _Das revolutionäre Paris_, p. 409).

[714] The great movement which makes use of the catchwords of Marx has not delivered the entrepreneur into the power of the worker, but both into that of the Bourse.

[715] Both the old parties possessed clear lines of tradition back to 1680.

[716] The moral and political “Enlightenment” movement was in England also a product of the Third Estate (Priestley and Paley, Paine, Godwin), and for that reason was unable to grasp things with the fine discrimination of a Shaftesbury.

[717] Pelham, the successor of Walpole, paid to members of the Commons, through his secretary, £500 to £800 at the end of each session according to the value of the services rendered by each recipient to the Government--i.e., the Whig party. The party agent Dodington described his parliamentary activities in these words: “I never attended a debate if I could help it, and I never missed a division that I could possibly take part in. I heard many arguments that convinced me, but never one that influenced my vote.”

[718] Here it was actually the interest of bourgeois and “enlightenment” ideals that the personal régime of dictatorship was thought to favour, for the opposition to these ideas lay in the strict state-ideal of the Polis, which according to Isocrates was marked with the curse of inability to die.

[719] Diodorus XIV, 7. The drama was repeated in 317, when Agathocles the ex-potter let loose his mercenary bands and the mob upon the new upper classes. After the massacre the “people” of the “purified city” assembled and conferred the dictature upon the “saviour of true and genuine freedom” (Deodorus XIX, 6, et seq.). On the whole movement see Busolt, _Griech. Staatskunde_, pp. 396, et seq., and Pöhlmann, _Gesch. d. soz. Frage_, I, pp. 416, et seq.

[720] Already that part of the Prussian army which had been in Russia had declared against Napoleon--and that, though its general, Yorck, was no liberal, but the old strict type of the Frederician officer.--_Tr._

[721] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, IV, §§ 626, 630.

[722] H. Delbrück, _Gesch. d. Kriegskunst_ (1908), I, p. 142.

[723] Three to six “_tribuni militares consulari protestate_” instead of the Consuls. Just at this juncture, as the result of the introduction of pay and longer duration of service with the colours, there must have come into being a nucleus of true professional soldiers, who would have the election of centurions in their own hands and by whom the spirit of the army was determined. It is entirely erroneous to speak of a peasant-levy at this stage, quite apart from the fact that the four great city-tribes contributed a considerable part of the rank and file and a part, too, whose influence was even greater than its numerical strength. Even in the “good old days” picture presented to us by Livy and others we can clearly perceive the influence exerted by the standing formations upon the contests of parties.

[724] It is perhaps not a mere coincidence that 367 is the year of Dionysius’s death.

[725] According to K. J. Neumann, this goes back to the great Censor.

[726] According to Roman law, the freed slave at once acquired citizenship, with some few limitations. As the slave-material came from all over the Mediterranean region and most of all from the East, it was a vast rootless mass that collected in the four urban tribes, alien from all the tendencies of the old Roman blood; and it quickly destroyed these when, after the Gracchan movement, it had succeeded in bringing its weight of numbers to bear with effect.

[727] From the end of the fourth century the nobility developed into a closed circle of families that had, or claimed to have, consuls among their ancestors. The more strictly this condition was enforced, the more frequent were the falsifications of the old consul-lists in order to “legitimize” rising families of strong race and talent. The first (and truly revolutionary) outburst of forgery occurs in the epoch of Appius Claudius the Censor, when the curule ædile C. Flavius, the son of a slave, put the list in order--that was the time when even royal cognomina were discovered amongst plebeian families. The second was in the days of the battle of Pydna (168), when the dominance of the nobility began to assume Cæsarian forms (E. Kornemann, _Der Priesterkodex in der Regia_, 1912, pp. 56, et seq.). Of the 200 Consulates between 232 and 133, 159 fell to 26 families, and thereafter blood-quality being exhausted, but the form as such being all the more studiously preserved in consequence--the rise of _novi homines_ like Cato and Cicero became a rare phenomenon.

[728] Another instance, among many, is its rôle in preparing the German crash of 1918.

[729] And even in France, where the judicial class in the parlements openly scorned the Government, and with impunity tore down royal proclamations from the walls and put up their own _arrêts_ instead (R. Holtzmann, _Französ. Verfassungsgesch._, 1910, p. 353); where “orders were given, but not obeyed, laws enacted, but not executed” (A. Wahl, _Vorgesch. d. franz. Revolution_, I, 29 and passim); where high finance could overthrow Turgot and anyone else whose reform-schemes disquieted it; where the whole educated world, headed by princes and nobles, prelates and generals, was Anglomaniac and applauded opposition in any shape or form--even there nothing would have happened but for the sudden concurrence of a set of incidents--the fashion which set in amongst French officers of aiding the American republicans in their struggle with the English King; the diplomatic reverse in Holland (27 Oct. 1787) in the middle of the reforming activity of the Government; and the perpetual change of ministers under pressure from irresponsible quarters. In the British Empire, the falling-away of the Colonies was the result of attempts of high-Tory circles (in collusion with George III, but in reality of course in their own interests) to strengthen the Royal power. This party possessed in the Colonies a strong contingent of royalists, notably in the South: these elements, fighting on the British side, decided the battle of Camden, and after the final victory of the rebels mostly emigrated to Canada, which had remained loyal.

[730] In 1793 there were 306 members of the House of Commons who were elected by 160 persons in all. Old Sarum, the constituency of the elder Pitt, consisted of one tenement, returning two members.

[731] Afterwards--from 1832--the English nobility itself, through a series of prudent measures, drew the bourgeoisie into _co-operation_ with it, but under its continued guidance and, above all, in the framework of tradition, within which consequently the young talent grew up. Democracy thus actualized itself here so that the Government remained strictly “in form”--the old aristocratic form--while the individual was free to practise politics according to his bent. This transition, in a peasantless society dominated by business interests, was the most remarkable achievement of inner politics in the nineteenth century.

[732] Early, that is, in the post-revolutionary era here considered.--_Tr._

[733] The reassertion of this tradition after the emergency-army of the Wars of Liberation (1812-15) had dispersed into the body of the community is a remarkable story, in which military and political standpoints cannot be separated. See Vidal de la Blache, _La Régéneration de l’Armée Prusse_ (1910), Ch. vi.--_Tr._

[734] See _Preussentum und Sozialismus_, pp. 40, et seq.

[735] The genesis of the Roman Tribunate was a blind incident, the happy consequences of which no one really foresaw. Western Constitutions, on the contrary, have been thoroughly thought out and their effects precisely calculated--whether the calculation proved to be correct or incorrect, the care is undeniable.

[736] From the few European works that concern themselves with questions of ancient Chinese history, it emerges that Chinese literature contains a very great amount of material bearing on this period, which corresponds in innumerable parallels to our own present time. But there is a total lack of any political treatment of it that can be taken seriously. References: Hübotter, _Aus den Plänen der Kämpfenden Reiche_ (1912); Piton, “The Six Great Chancellors of Tsin,” _China Review_, XIII, 202, 255, 365, XIV, 3; Ed. Chavannes, _Mém. hist. de Se-ma-tsien_ (1895 and following); Pfizmair, _Sitz. Wien Akad._, XLIII (1863) (“Tsin”), XLIV (“Tsu”); A. Tschepe, _Histoire du royaume de Ou_ (1896), and _de Tchou_ (1903).

[737] Corresponding more or less to the province of Shen-si.

[738] On the middle Yang-tse-kiang.

[739] Biography 13 of Sze-ma-tsien. So far as the translated evidences allow us to judge, the preparation and dispositions of these campaigns, the boldness of the operations by which he drove the enemy on to ground where he could beat him, and the novel tactical execution of the separate battles, stamp Pe-Ki as one of the greatest military geniuses of all time, a figure worthy indeed of adequate treatment by a military expert. It is from this period that we have the authoritative work of Sun-tse on War: Giles, _Sun-Tse on the Art of War_ (1910). [Or Capt. E. R. Calthrop, _The Book of War--Sun and Wu_ (1908).--_Tr._]

[740] See pp. 312, et seq.

[741] Now approximately Shan-tung and Pe-chi-li.

[742] Piton, “Lu-puh-Weih,” _China Rev._ XIII, pp. 365 et seq.

[743] Even if the Chinese authors themselves misunderstood the expression in the same, or anything like the same, way as their Western translators, the fact would only prove that the appreciation of political problems vanished as rapidly in the Chinese Imperial Age as in fact it did in the Roman--because they were no longer personally and livingly experienced. The much-admired Sze-ma-tsien is after all a compiler of the same rank as Plutarch (with whom he corresponds in date also). The high point of historical comprehension, _which presumes an equivalent experience in life_, must for China have lain in the period of the Contending States, as it lies for us in the nineteenth century and after.

[744] Both, like most of the leading statesmen of the time, were pupils of Kwei-ku-tse, whose knowledge of men, deep sense of the historically possible, and command of the diplomatic technique of the age (the “Art of the vertical and the horizontal”) must have made him one of the most influential personalities of the period. Another figure of the same sort of weight after him was the thinker and war-theorist above alluded to, Sun-tse, who amongst others was the tutor of the Chancellor Lui-Si.

[Sun-Tse’s book of war, as presented in Calthrop’s translation, is comparable to nothing in Western military literature short of Clausewitz’s _Vom Kriege_. Clausewitz was a contemporary and product of the Napoleonic epoch, and the glow of Romanticism has not yet passed from him; Sun, on the other hand, came “later,” and his atmosphere is the shrewd factual atmosphere of pre-Cæsarism.--_Tr._]

[745] A story is told of Sun, that when for a jest (or a demonstration of tactics) opposed forces were made up from the court ladies, one of the commanders, the sovereign’s favourite wife, was executed by Sun’s command for disobeying an order.--_Tr._

[746] Frederick’s “conscripts” (_Landeskinder_) were a long-service element, small in proportion to the population, and of serf status. Only the relative poverty of Prussia compelled this much of departure from the then normal procedure of recruiting volunteers, to which the Prussian army reverted as soon as its treasury could afford to do so. Maurice de Saxe is the one outstanding soldier of the period who advocated universal citizen service. But the famous “_Rêveries_” were written (“in thirteen sleepless nights”) in 1732, before he had held high command. The military works of Leibniz touch upon the subject, but he was a practical man as well as a philosopher, and his detailed proposals are in the spirit of the time. On the contrary, the pure philosopher Spinoza definitely advocated universal service.--_Tr._

[747] Large, that is, relatively to the general development of Classical technics in other fields, which was of the slightest--not in any way outstanding if judged by, say, Assyrian or Egyptian standards.

[748] The book of the Socialist Moh-ti, of this period, treats of universal love of mankind in its first part, of fortress artillery in its second--a singular example of contraposition of truths and facts. Forke in _Ostasiat. Ztschr._, VIII (Hirth number).

[749] A whole literature exists for Napoleon’s “case-shot attack,” which was closely studied in the years before 1914 with the definite aim of finding a key to victories that the mechanical developments in the defensive rifle had made doubtful.--_Tr._

[750] On the side of the North, more than 11⁄2 million men out of barely 20 million inhabitants.

[The total of men of military age in the North was 4,600,000, of whom 2,780,000 actually enlisted. The figure of 1,700,000 is a reduction to a three-year level--i.e., men who served throughout the war counting as 11⁄3 each and men who served for one year as 1⁄3 each. The Southern states put into the field, on the same three-years’ basis, 900,000 out of 1,065,000 men of military age. (Dodge, _Birds Eye View of our Civil War_.)--_Tr._]

[751] To which should be added, though on a small scale, the first serious attempts at submarines, machine-guns, and magazine rifles.--_Tr._

[752] Amongst the wholly new problems was that of rapidly restoring railways and bridges; the bridge at Chattanooga, for the heaviest military trains, 240 metres long and 30 metres high, was built in 41⁄2 days.

[753] Modern Japan belongs to the Western Civilization no less than “modern” Carthage of the third century to the Classical.

[754] For the politico-social history of the Arabian World there is the same lack of deep and penetrating research as for the Chinese. Only the political evolution of the Western margin up to Diocletian, regarded hitherto as within the Classical pale, is an exception.

[755] It was a few thousands only that accompanied the first conquerors and spread themselves from Tunis to Turkestan, and these everywhere constituted themselves a self-contained and close Estate in the entourage of the new potentates. An “Arabian _Völkerwanderung_” is out of the question.

[756] J. Wellhausen, _Das arabische Reich und sein Sturz_ (1902), pp. 309, et seq.

[757] Compare the inner divisions of the English Parliamentary army in and after the Civil Wars.--_Tr._

[758] See p. 261.

[759] K. Dieterich, _Byz. Charakterköpfe_, p. 54: “Since thou wilt have an answer from us, receive it then! Paul has said some in the Church are ordained by God to be Apostles, some prophets, but he said nothing about Emperors--we will not follow though it were an angel that bade us; how much less if thou!”

[760] Cf. p. 316.

[761] Huart, _Gesch. d. Araber_ (1914), I, p. 299.

[762] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., art. “Carmathians.”--_Tr._

[763] Krumbacher, _Byz. Lit.-Gesch._, p. 969.

[764] For all this see Krumbacher, op. cit., pp. 969-90; C. Neumann, _Die Weltstellung des Byz. Reiches vor den Kreuzzügen_ (1894), pp. 21, et seq.

[765] Krumbacher, op. cit., 993.

[766] And perhaps not in Baghdad alone, for the gifted Maniakes, who was hailed by the army in Sicily as Emperor and fell in 1043 in his march on Byzantium, must have been a Turk.

[767] 1785-1580. See, for the following, Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._ §§ 298, et seq.; Weill, _La Fin du moyen empire égyptien_ (1918). That Ed. Meyer’s assignment is correct as compared with the 1670 years of Petrie has long been proved by the thickness of the strata in which objects have been found and the tempo of the style-evolution (Minoan included). Here it is demonstrated afresh by comparison with corresponding sections in the other Cultures.

[768] P. 387.

[769] Erman, “_Mahnworte eines ägypt. Propheten_” (_Sitz. Preuss. Akad._, 1919, pp. 804, et seq.): “The higher officials are displaced, the land robbed of its royalty by a few madmen, and the counsellors of the old state pay their court to upstarts; administration has ceased, documents are destroyed, all social differences abolished, the courts fallen into the hands of the mob. The noble classes go hungry and in rags, their children are battered on the wall, and their mummies torn from the grave. Mean fellows become rich and swagger in the palaces on the strength of the herds and ships that they have taken from their rightful owners. Former slave-girls become insolent and aliens lord it. Robbery and murder rule, cities are laid waste, public buildings burned down. The harvest diminishes, no one thinks now of cleanliness, births are few--and oh, that mankind might cease!” Here is the very picture of the megalopolitan and Late revolution, as it was enacted in the Hellenistic (p. 405) and in 1789 and 1871 in Paris. It is the world-city masses, will-less tools of the ambition of leaders who demolish every remnant of order, who desire to see in the outer world the same chaos as reigns within their own selves. Whether these cynical and hopeless attempts start from alien intruders like the Hyksos or the Turks, or from slaves as in the case of Spartacus and Ali; whether the division of property is shouted for as at Syracuse or has a book for banner like Marxism--all this is superficial. It is wholly immaterial what slogans scream to the wind while the gates and the skulls are being beaten in. Destruction is the true and only impulse, and Cæsarism the only issue. The world-city, the land-devouring demon, has set its rootless and futureless men in motion; and in destroying they die.

[770] The Papyrus says: the “archer-folk from without”--that is, the barbarian mercenary troops. To these the native youth attached itself.

[771] Glance also at the Negro-state in Irak and the “contemporary” attempts of Spartacus, Sertorius, and Sextus Pompey, and we get a fair idea of the variety of the possibilities. Weill assumes, 1785-1765, the collapse of the Kingdom, a usurper (a general); 1765-1675, numerous small potentates, in the Delta wholly independent; 1675-1633, struggle for unity, especially the rulers of Thebes, with an ever-increasing retinue of dependent rulers, including the Hyksos; 1633, victory of the Hyksos and defeat of the Thebans; 1591-1571, final triumph of the Thebans.

[772] As an inspiriting idea it may be retained; translated into actuality it will never be again.

[773] Piton, op. cit., p. 521.

[774] _Hist._, III, 1.

[775] Including the constitution of the United States of America. Only thus can we account for the reverence that the American cherishes for it, even where he clearly sees its insufficiency.

[776] Cæsar recognized this clearly. “_Nihil esse rem publicam, appellationem modo sine corpore ac specie_” (Suetonius, _Cæsar_, 77).

[777] See p. 48.

[778] See p. 48.

[779] Cicero, in his _Pro Sestio_, draws attention to the fact that five people for each tribe attended plebiscites, and these really belonged to tribes other than that which they were representing. But these five were present only in order to have themselves bought by the possessors of the real power. Yet it was hardly fifty years since the Italians had died in masses for this franchise.

[780] And, strangely, Ed. Meyer also, in his masterpiece _Cæsars Monarchie_, the one work of statesmanlike quality yet written about this epoch--and previously in his essay on Augustus (_Kleine Schriften_, pp. 441, et seq.).

[781] _De Re Publica_, 54 B.C., a monograph intended for Pompey.

[782] P. 395.

[783] See p. 409.

[784] In _Somnium Scipionis_, VI, 26, he is a god who so rules the State _quam hunc mundum ille princeps deus_.

[785] It was with every justification that, in the presence of the corpse, Brutus called out the name of Cicero, while Antony, on his side, denounced him as the intellectual author of the deed. But this “freedom” meant nothing but the oligarchy of a few families, for the masses had long ago become tired of their rights. Nor is it in the least surprising that Money was behind Intellect in the murder, for the great fortunes of Rome saw in Cæsarism the beginning of the end of their power.

[786] Taoism, on the other hand, was supported, as preaching the entire renunciation of politics. Said Shakespeare’s Cæsar:

“Let me have men about me that are fat, Sleek-headed men and such as sleep o’nights.”

[787] Tacitus, even, failed to understand. He hated these first Cæsars, because they defended themselves by every imaginable means against a stealthy opposition--in _his own_ circles--an opposition that from Trajan’s time no longer existed. (Yet a little longer, and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius could himself be a Stoic.--_Tr._)

[788] P. 329.

[789] Pp. 89 and 349.

[790] P. 310.

[791] “Empires perish, but a good verse stands,” said W. von Humboldt on the field of Waterloo. But, all the same, the personality of Napoleon preformed the history of the next century. Good verses!--he should have questioned a peasant by the way-side. They “stand”--for literary teaching. Plato is eternal--for philologists. But Napoleon inwardly rules _us_, all of _us_, our states and our armies, our public opinion, the whole of our political outlook, and the more effectually the less we are conscious of it.

[792] P. 361.

[793] P. 116 and 339.

[794] P. 363.

[795] This is what is expressed in the English proverb: “Men, not measures,” which is the very key to the secrets of all political achievement.

[796] Pp. 18 and 364.

[797] See p. 341.

[798] The same, too, holds good of the Churches, which are different in kind from the Religion--namely, elements of the world of facts and, therefore, political and not religious in the type of their leadership. It was not the Christian evangel, but the Christian martyr, who conquered the world, and that which gave him his strength was not the doctrine, but the example, of the Man on the Cross.

[799] It should scarcely need to be emphasized that this is the basic principle, not of an aristocratic régime, but of government itself. Cleon, Robespierre, Lenin, every gifted mass-leader, has treated his office thus. Anyone who genuinely felt himself as the delegate of the multitude, instead of as the regent of such as do not know what they want, would not remain master of his house for one day. The only question is whether the great popular leaders apply their powers for their own benefit or for that of others; and on that much might be said.

[800] Originally an assembly of nineteen princes and free cities (1529).

[801] See pp. 355, 398, et seq.

[802] Hence it is that on the soil of burgher equality the possession of money immediately takes the place of genealogical rank.

[803] See p. 354.

[804] Pp. 424, et seq. Compare also Wellhausen, _Die relig.-polit. Oppositionsparteien im alten Islam_ (1901).

[805] It is an important factor in the democracy of England and America that in the first the yeomanry had died out and in the second has never existed. The “farmer” is spiritually a suburban and in practice carries on his farming as an industry. Instead of villages, there are only fragments of megalopolis.

[806] And wherever, as in Egypt, India, and the West, there exists a _political_ opposition between the two primary Estates, there is also a clerical party--the party, so to speak, of the Church as distinct from religion and of the priest as distinct from the believer.

[807] And with its content of race-strength it has an excellent chance of successfully doing so.

[808] P. 409.

[809] _Plebs_ corresponds to the “Tiers” (burghers and yeomen) of the eighteenth century, _populus_ to the megalopolitan masses of the nineteenth. The difference manifested itself in their respective attitudes towards the freed slaves, mostly of non-Italian origin. These the Plebs, as an order, sought to thrust away into as few tribes as possible, but in the Populus as a party they very soon came to play the decisive rôle.

[810] P. 412.

[811] Simultaneously, too, the Roman Catholic Church quietly changed the basis of its politics from a class to a party, and did so with a strategic sureness that cannot be too much admired. In the eighteenth century it had been, as regards the style of its diplomacy, the allocation of its offices and the spirit of its higher circles, aristocratic through and through. Think of the type of the abbé, and of the prince-prelates who became ministers and ambassadors, like the young Cardinal Rohan. Now, in the true liberal fashion, opinions took the place of origins, working-power that of taste, and the great weapons of democracy--press, elections, money--were handled with a skill that liberalism proper rarely equalled and never surpassed.

[812] For what follows see M. Gelzer, _Die Nobilität d. röm. Republik_ (1912), pp. 43, et seq.; A. Rosenberg, _Untersuchungen zur röm. Centurienverfassung_(1911), pp. 62, et seq.

[813] The reputation of Tammany Hall in New York is universal, but the relations approximate to this condition in all countries ruled by parties. The American Caucus, which first distributes the offices of State amongst its members and then forces their names upon the mass-electorate, was introduced into England by Joseph Chamberlain in his “National Liberal Federation,” and in Germany its advances have been rapid since 1919.

[814] P. 305.

[815] P. 18, et seq.

[816] For the story of this tragic experiment, see Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._, § 987, et seq.

[817] See p. 417. The “plans of the Contending States,” the Tchun-tsiu-fan-lu, and the biographies of Sze-ma-tsien are full of examples of the pedagogic in interventions of “wisdom” into the province of politics.

[818] For this “Sun-state” formed of slaves and day-labourers see Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencycl._, 2, 961. Similarly, the revolutionary King Cleomenes III of Sparta was likewise under the influence of a Stoic, Sphærus. One can understand why “philosophers and rhetors”--i.e., professional politicians, fantastics and subverters--were expelled again and again by the Roman Senate.

[819] P. 310.

[820] P. 114.

[821] The early democracy, which in our case reaches up to Lincoln, Bismarck, and Gladstone, has to learn this by _experience_. The later democracy, in our case mature parliamentarism, starts out from it; here truths and facts finally separate out in the form of party ideals and party funds. It is the money that gives the real parliamentarian his sense of being freed from the dependence which is implicit in the naïve idea that the elector has of his delegate.

[822] P. 452.

[823] P. 354.

[824] That the mass all the same _feels_ itself as freed is simply another outcome of the profound incompatibility between megalopolitan spirit and mature tradition. Its _acts_, so far from being independent, are in inward relation with its subjection to money-rule.

[825] The German Constitution of 1919--standing by virtue of its date on the verge of the _decline_ of democracy--most naïvely admits a dictature of the party machines, which have attracted all rights into themselves and are seriously responsible to no one. The notorious system of proportional election and the Reichslist [see _Ency. Brit._, 1922 Supplement, II, 249.--_Tr._] secures their self-recruitment. In place of the “people’s” rights, which were axiomatic in the Frankfurt Constitution of 1848, there is now only the right of parties, which, harmless as it sounds, really nurses within itself a Cæsarism of the organizations. It must be allowed, however, that in this respect it is the most advanced of all the constitutions. Its issue is visible already. A few quite small alterations and it confers unrestricted power upon individuals.

[826] And _legislation_, too, was bound up with an office. Even when, as a formality, acceptance or rejection by an assembly was requisite, the law in question could be brought in only by an official; for example, a Tribune. The constitutional demands of the masses, therefore (which in any case were mostly instigated by the real power-holders), expressed themselves in the issue of the elections to office, as the Gracchan period shows.

[827] Even Cæsar, at fifty years of age, was obliged to play this comedy at the Rubicon for his soldiers because they were used to it and expected it when anything was asked of them. It corresponds to the “chest-tones of deep conviction” of our political assemblies.

[828] But the Cleon type must obviously have existed also in contemporary Sparta, and in Rome at the time of the Consular Tribunes.

[829] Gelzer, _Nobilität_, p. 94; along with Ed. Meyer’s _Cæsar_ this book gives the best survey of Roman democratic methods.

[830] “_Inaurari_,” to which end Cicero recommended his friend Trebatius to Cæsar.

[831] “_Tributim ad prandium vocare_,” Cicero, _Pro Murena_, 72.

[832] For from that time sesterces flowed through his hands by the million. The votive treasures of the Gallic temples which he put up for sale in Italy sent down the value of gold with a rush. From King Ptolemy he and Pompey extorted 144,000,000 (and Gabinius another 240,000,000) as the price of recognition. The Consul Æmilius Paullus (50) was bought for 36,000,000, Curio for 60,000,000. We can guess from such figures how enviable was the position of his closer associates. At the triumph of 46 every soldier in an army of well over 100,000 men received 24,000 sesterces, officers and other leaders much more. Yet at his death the state treasury was still full enough to secure Antony’s position.

[833] Gelzer, op. cit., p. 68.

[834] Extortion and corruption were the usual charges. As in those days these things were identical with politics, and the judges and plaintiffs had acted precisely in the same way as the defendants, the art consisted in using the forms of a well-acted ethical passion to cover a party speech, of which the real import was only comprehensible to the initiated. This corresponds entirely with the modern parliamentary usage. The “people” would be very much astonished to see party opponents, after delivering wild speeches in the chamber (for the reporters) chatting together in the lobbies, or to be told how a party passionately champions a proposal after it has made certain by agreement with the other side that it will not be passed. In Rome, too, the judgment was not the important thing in these “trials”; it was enough if a defendant voluntarily left the city and so retired from the occupancy of, or candidature for, office.

[835] See Pöhlmann, _Griech. Gesch._ (1914), pp. 236, et seq. [Cf. Aristophanes, _Wasps_.--_Tr._]

[836] Thus it was possible for Rutilius Rufus to be condemned in the notorious case of 93, because as proconsul he had in accordance with his duty proceeded against the extortions of the concessionnaire associations.

[837] Radio broadcasting has now emerged to enable the leader to make personal conquests of the million, and no one can foretell the changes in political tactic that may ensue therefrom.--_Tr._

[838] The most striking example of this for future generations will be the “War-guilt” question, which is the question--_who_ possesses the power, through control of press and cable in all parts of the world, to establish in world-opinion that truth which he needs for his political ends and to maintain it for so long as he needs it? An altogether different question (which only in Germany is confused with the first) is the purely scientific one--to _whose_ interest was it that an event about which there was already a whole literature should occur in the summer of 1914 in particular?

[839] In preparation for the World War the press of whole countries was brought financially under the command of London and Paris, and the peoples belonging to them reduced to an unqualified intellectual slavery. The more democratic the inner form of a nation is, the more readily and completely it succumbs to this danger. This is the style of the twentieth century. To-day a democrat of the old school would demand, not freedom for the press, but freedom from the press; but meantime the leaders have changed themselves into parvenus who have to secure their position _vis-à-vis_ the masses.

[840] The great Burning of the Books in China (p. 433) was innocuous by comparison.

[841] P. 434.

[842] Herein lies the secret of why all radical (i.e., poor) parties necessarily become the tools of the money-powers, the Equites, the Bourse. Theoretically their enemy is capital, but practically they attack, not the Bourse, but Tradition on behalf of the Bourse. This is as true of to-day as it was for the Gracchan age, and in all countries. Fifty per cent of mass-leaders are procurable by money, office, or opportunities to “come in on the ground-floor,” and with them they bring their whole party.

[843] P. 415.

[844] See _Preussentum und Sozialismus_, p. 41, et seq.

[845] _Political Discourses_, 1752.

[846] The celebrated _Wealth of Nations_, 1776.

[847] It was the opinion of the expert, almost everywhere, that the economic consequences of general mobilization would compel the breaking-up of hostilities within a few weeks.

[848] P. 81.

[849] Pp. 1, et seq., and 335.

[850] P. 327, et seq.

[851] Pp. 95, 120, et seq.

[852] P. 5.

[853] “_Negotium_” (by which is meant every form of gainful activity; business is _commercium_) “_negat otium neque quærit veram quietem quæ est deus_,” are the words of the _Decretum Gratiani_ (cf. p. 77).

[854] Pilate’s question settles also the relation of economy to science. The religious man will always try in vain, catechism in hand, to improve the instincts of his political environment. But it goes on its way undisturbed and leaves him to his thoughts. The saint can only choose between adapting himself to this environment--and then he becomes a Church politician and conscienceless--and fleeing from it into a hermitage or even into the Beyond. But the same happens also--and here not without a comic side to it--in the intellectualism of the city. The philosopher who has built up an ethical-social system that is replete with virtue and (of course) the only true one, may enlighten the economic life as to how it should behave and at what it should aim. It is even the same spectacle, whether labelled liberal, anarchistic, or socialistic, or derived from Plato, Proudhon, or Marx. Here, too, economy carries on undisturbed and leaves the thinker to choose between withdrawing to pour out on paper his lamentations of this world, and entering it as an economic politician, in which case he either makes himself ridiculous, or else promptly throws his theory to the devil and starts to win himself a leading place.

[855] See pp. 1, et seq.

[856] See p. 6.

[857] Exactly the same is true of wandering bands of hunters and pastorals. But the economic foundation of the great Culture is always a mankind that adheres fast to the soil, and nourishes and supports the higher economic forms.

[858] See p. 331.

[859] Undershaft in Shaw’s _Major Barbara_ is a true ruler-figure of this realm.

[860] P. 344. As a means for governments it is called finance-economy (financial policy). Here the whole nation is the object of a levy of tribute, in the forms of taxes and customs, of which the purpose is not to make, so to say, the upkeep of its life more comfortable, but to secure its historical position and to enhance its power.

[861] Using the phrase widely, as including, for instance, the rise of workmen, journalists, and men of learning to positions of leadership.

[862] P. 331.

[863] P. 31.

[864] See pp. 172 and 280.

[865] Including the medical profession, which indeed is indistinguishable in primitive times from the priests and magicians.

[866] Herdsmen, fishermen, and hunters included. There is, moreover, a strange and very profound relation between peasant and miner, evidenced in ancient sagas and rites. The metals are coaxed out of the shaft as the corn out of the earth, and the game out of the thicket. And for the real miner even metal is something that _lives_ and grows.

[867] This is true from the earliest sea-voyaging to the Bourse of the world-city, and all traffic, whether by river, road, or rail belongs with it.

[868] With this belong the machine industry, with its purely Western type of the inventor and engineer, and practically, also, a great part of the modern agronomy, as, for instance, in America.

[869] Even to-day the mining and metal industries are felt to be somehow nobler than, for example, the chemical and electrical. They possess the most ancient patent of nobility in the technical world, and a relic of cult-mystery lies over them.

[870] That is, up to the limit of servage and slavery, although very often--as in the present-day East and as in Rome in the case of “vernæ”--slavery itself may be nothing but a form of compulsory-labour contract and, apart from that, hardly sensible. The free employee often lives in far stricter subjection and enjoys far less respect, and his formal right to “give notice” is in many cases practically valueless to him.

[British readers will recall in this connexion the “Chinese slavery” controversy in South Africa in 1904, and the questions of indentured labour that come to the surface not infrequently in Australian politics. And in an older generation defenders of slavery as practised in the sugar islands of the West Indies are still to be found--not to mention the survivors and tradition-bearers of the “Old South” in the United States.--_Tr._]

[871] P. 60.

[872] We know this accurately for the Egyptian and the Gothic beginnings, and in general terms for the Chinese and the Classical; as for the _economic pseudomorphosis_ of the Arabian (see pp. 189, et seq., 349) it may be summarized, after Hadrian, as a process of disintegration of the highly civilized Classical money-economy culminating in the appearance, under Diocletian, of a Springtime barter-economy with, in the East, the true Magian element of bargaining visibly superposed.

[873] P. 343.

[874] Neither the copper pieces of the Italian Villanova-graves of early Homeric times (Willers, _Gesch. d. röm. Kupferprägung_, p. 18) nor the early Chinese bronze coins in the form of women’s drapery (_pu_), bells, rings, or knives (_tsien_, Conrady, _China_, p. 504) are described as money, but quite distinctly symbols of goods. And the coins struck by the governments of early Gothic times (in imitation of the Classical) as signs of sovereignty figured in economic life only as wares; a piece of gold is worth as much as a cow, _but not vice versa_.

[875] Hence it is that so often he is not an outcome of the fixed and self-contained life of the countryside, but an alien appearing in it, an alien having neither importance nor antecedents. This is the rôle of the Phœnicians in the earliest period of the Classical; of the Romans in the East in Mithradates’s time; of the Jews, and with them Byzantines, Persians, and Armenians, in the Gothic West; of the Arabs in the Sudan; of the Indians in East Africa; and of the West-Europeans in present-day Russia.

[876] And, consequently, on a very small scale. As foreign trade was in those days highly adventurous and appealed to the imagination, it was as a rule immensely exaggerated. The “great” merchants of Venice and the Hansa about 1300 were hardly the equals of the more distinguished craftsmen. The turnover of even the Medici or the Fugger about 1400 was equivalent to that of a shop-business in a small town to-day. The largest merchant vessels, in which usually several traders held part shares, were much smaller than modern German river-barges, and made only _one_ considerable voyage each year. The celebrated wool-export of England, a main element of Hanseatic trade, amounted about 1270 to hardly as much as the contents of two modern goods-trains (Sombart, _Der moderne Kapitalismus_, I, pp. 280, et seq.).

[877] P. 91.

[878] Cf. Vol. I, Ch. II.

[879] Marks and dollars are no more “money” than metres and grammes are “forces.” _Pieces_ of money are real values. It is only our ignorance of Classical physics that has saved us from confusing gravitation with a pound-weight--in our mathematics, with its Classical basis, we still mix number with magnitude, and our imitation of Classical coinage has brought about the same confusion between money and pieces of money.

[880] Conversely, therefore, we can call the metric system (cm., g.) a valuation, and in fact all money-measures proceed from the weight theories of physics.

[881] Similarly all value-theories, however objective they are meant to be, are developed--and inevitably so--out of a subjective principle. That of Marx, for example, defines value in the way that promotes the interest of the manual worker, the effort of the discoverer or the organizer seeming to him, therefore, valueless. But it would be wrong to describe this as “erroneous.” All these theories are “right” for their supporters and “wrong” for their opponents, and it is not reasons but _life_ that settles whether one is a supporter or an opponent.

[882] The Western introduced (on a very modest scale) by the Bank of England from the end of the eighteenth century, the Chinese dating from the period of the Contending States.

[883] And is thought of as “amount,” whereas we speak of the “extent” of a property in goods.

[884] Even to the modern pirates of the money-market who intervene amongst the interveners and gamble with money as “wares.”

[885] Preisigke, _Girowesen im griechischen Ægypten_ (1910). These trading forms of the Ptolemaic period were already in vogue, and at the same high level, under the XVIIIth Dynasty.

[886] So also with the bourgeois ideal of freedom. In theory and, therefore, constitutionally, a man may be free _in principle_, but _actually_, in the economic private-life of the cities, he is made free only by money.

[887] The name “bourse” can be applied even in other Cultures, if by that word we mean the thought-organ of a developed money-economy.

[888] Preface to _Major Barbara_ (Constable, London 1909).

[889] P. 343.

[890] The “farmer” is the man whose connexion with the piece of land is no longer anything more than practical.

[891] The increasing intensity of this thinking appears in the economic picture as a _growth of the available money-mass_, which is abstract and imagined and has nothing to do with the visible supply of gold as a ware. The “stiffening” of the money-market, for example, is a purely intellectual process played out in the hands of a small handful of men. The increasing energy of money-thinking consequently awakens, in every Culture, the feeling that the “value of money is going down”--enormously so, for example, in the time between Solon and Alexander--with reference, namely, to the unit of calculation. What actually happens is that the mercantile units of value have become artificial and no longer comparable with the primary and livingly experiential values of the peasant economy. In the end it ceases to matter in what figures the Attic treasure of the Delian League (454) or the sums involved in the peace-treaties of 241 and 201, or the booty of Pompey in 64 are reckoned, and whether we ourselves shall pass in a few decades from the milliards--still unknown in 1850, but commonplace to-day--to the billions. There is no common standard for the value of a talent in 430 and in 30 B.C., for gold, like cattle and corn, has continually altered not only its own numeration, but its significance within an ever-advancing urban economy. The only steady element is the fact that quantity of money--not to be confused with the stock of tokens and the means of payment--is an _alter ego_ mirroring thought in money.

[892] Cf. Vol. I, Ch. II.

[893] Friedländer, _Röm. Sittengesch._, IV (1921), p. 301.

[894] Sallust, _Catilina_, 35, 3.

[895] P. 458.

[896] How difficult it was for Classical man to figure to himself the transformation of a physically indefinable asset like land into bodily money is shown by the stone posts (ὅροι) on land in Greece, which were meant to _represent_ the mortgages on it, and by the Roman method of sale _per æs et libram_, in which a clod of earth was handed over for a coin in the presence of witnesses. Consequently, trade in goods (properly so called) never existed, nor anything like, for example, a current price for arable land. A regular relation between land-value and money-value was as unthinkable to the Classical mind as such a relation between artistic value and money-value. Intellectual--i.e., incorporeal--products like dramas and frescoes possessed economically no value at all. For the Classical idea of law, cf. p. 81.

[897] Not very much can have been left of Classical art-treasures even by Augustus’s time. The refined Athenians themselves thought far too unhistorically to be moved to spare a chryselephantine statue merely because it was the work of Phidias. It is worth remembering that the gold parts of the famous Athene-figure of the Parthenon cella were made removable and tested for weight from time to time. Economic use of them, therefore, was provided for from the outset.

[898] _Ges. Schriften_, IV, 200, et seq.

[899] P. 600.

[900] The belief that slaves ever constituted, even in Athens or Ægina, as much as a third of the population is a complete delusion. On the contrary, the revolutions of the period after 400 presuppose an enormous surplus of free paupers.

[901] P. 480.

[902] Herein lies the difference between this slavery and the sugar-slavery of our own Baroque. The latter represents a threshold phase of our _machine industry_, an organization of “living” energy, which began with man-fuel, but presently passed over to coal-fuel; and slavery came to be considered immoral only when coal had established itself. Looked at from this angle, the victory of the North in the American Civil War (1865) meant the economic victory of the concentrated energy of coal over the simple energy of the muscles.

[903] Pp. 371, et seq. The resemblance with the Egyptian administration under the Old Kingdom and the Chinese in the earliest Chóu period is unmistakable.

[904] The _clerici_ of these exchequer offices were the archetype of the modern bank-clerk. Cf. p. 371.

[905] Hampe, _Deutsche Kaisergeschichte_, p. 246. Leonardo Pisano, whose _Liber Abaci_ (1202) was authoritative in accountancy till well beyond the Renaissance, and who introduced, besides the Arabian system of numerals, negative numbers to indicate debit, was promoted by the great Hohenstaufen.

[906] P. 75.

[907] Sombart, _Der moderne Kapitalismus_, II, p. 119.

[908] There is a close relation between our picture of the nature of electricity and the process of the “clearing-house,” in which the positive and negative money-positions of several firms (centres of tension) are equated amongst themselves by a purely mental act and the true position made presentable by a booking. Cf. Vol. I, Ch. XI.

[909] Vol. I, ch. II.

[910] P. 81.

[911] In our Culture the credit of a country rests upon its economic capacity and the political organization thereof--which imparts to the operations and bookings of finance the character of real money-creations--and not on any quantity of gold that may be put into this or that. It is the Classicist superstition that raises the gold reserve to the status of an actual measure of credit--actual in that the level of credit is thereby made dependent, not upon “will,” but upon “can.” But the current coins are _wares_, which, relatively to national credit, possess a _price_--the poorer the credit, the higher the price of gold--so that thenceforth it can only be upheld against that of _other_ wares. Thus gold is measured like other wares against the unit of book-reckoning, and not vice versa as the term “gold standard” suggests. It serves also as means of payment in minor transactions, as for that matter a postage-stamp does. In old Egypt (whose money-thought is astoundingly like the Western) there was nothing resembling the coin even under the New Empire. The written transfer was entirely sufficient, and the Classical coins that filtered in from 650 to the founding of Alexandria and the Hellenistic régime were usually cut to pieces and reckoned by weight as a ware.

[912] That is why it does not exist for our (present) jurisprudence.

[913] All this equally holds good for the case of “workers” taking over the leadership of the works. Either they are incapable of management, and the business collapses, or they are capable of something, and then they themselves become inwardly entrepreneurs and think thenceforward only of maintaining their power. No theory can eliminate this fact from the world, for so life _is_.

[914] Thus it is only since 1770 that the banks have become centres of an economic power which made its first intervention with politics at the Congress of Vienna. Till then the banker had in the main concerned himself with bill business. The Chinese, and even the Egyptian, banks had a different significance, and the Classical banks, even in the Rome of Cæsar’s day, may best be described as cash-tills. They collected the yield of taxes in cash, and lent cash against replacement; thus the temples, with their stock of precious metal in the form of votive offerings, became “banks.” The temple of Delos, through several centuries, lent at ten per cent.

[915] The idea of the Firm took shape even in Late Gothic times as “_ratio_” [hence the modern French phrase “_raison sociale_”--_Tr._] or “_negotiatio_.” It is impossible to render it exactly in a Classical language. _Negotium_ meant for the Romans a concrete process, a “deal” and not a “business.”

[916] Pöhlmann, _griech. Geschichte_ (1914), p. 216, et seq.

[917] Gercke-Norden, _Einl. in der Altertumswissensch._, III, p. 291.

[918] Kromayer, in Hartmann’s _Röm. Gesch._, p. 150.

[919] The “Jews” of those times were the Romans (p. 318), and the Jews themselves were peasants and artizans and small traders (Pârvan, _Die Nationalität der Kaufleute im röm. Kaiserreiche_, 1909; also Mommsen, _Röm. Gesch._, V, p. 471); that is, they followed the very callings that in the Gothic period became the _object_ of their merchant activity. Present-day “Europe” is in exactly the same position _vis-à-vis_ the Russians whose profoundly mystical inner life feels “thinking in money” _as a sin_. (The Pilgrim in Gorki’s _Night-asylum_, and Tolstoi’s thought generally; pp. 194, 278.) Here to-day as in the Syria of Jesus’s time we have two economic worlds juxtaposed (pp. 192, et seq.): an upper, alien, and civilized world intruded from the West (the Bolshevism of the first years, totally Western and un-Russian, is the lees of this infiltration), and a townless barter-life that goes on deep below, uncalculating and exchanging only for immediate needs. We have to think of the catchwords of the surface as a voice, in which the Russian, simple and busied wholly with his soul, hears resignedly the will of God. Marxism amongst Russians is based on an inward misunderstanding. They bore with the higher economic life of Petrinism, but they neither created it nor recognized it. The Russian does not fight Capital, but he does not _comprehend_ it. Anyone who understands Dostoyevski will sense in these people a young humanity _for which as yet no money exists_, but only goods in relation to a life whose centre of gravity does _not_ lie on the economical side. The horror of values supervening from nowhere which before the war drove many to suicide is a misconstrued literary disguise of the fact that, for a townless barter-thinking, money-getting by means of money is an impiety, and (from the view-point of the coming Russian religion) a sin. To-day, with the towns of Tsarism in ruin and the mankind in them living the village life under the crust (temporarily) of urban-thinking Bolshevism, he has freed himself from the Western economy. His apocalyptic hatred--the same that the simple Jew of Jesus’s day bore to the Roman--is directed against Petersburg, as a city and the seat of a political power of Western stamp, but also as the centre of a thinking in Western money that has poisoned and misdirected the whole life. The Russian of the deeps to-day is bringing into being a third kind of Christianity, still priestless, and built _on the John Gospel_--a Christianity that stands much nearer to the Magian than to the Faustian and, consequently, rests upon a new symbolism of baptism, and looks neither at Rome nor at Wittenberg, but past Byzantium towards Jerusalem, with premonitions of coming crusades. This is the _only_ thing that this new Russia really cares about. And it will no doubt let itself fall once again under the economy of the West, as the primitive Christian submitted to the Romans and the Gothic Christian to the Jews. But inwardly it has no part nor lot therein. (Cf. pp. 192, 226, 278, 293, 295.)

[920] See the article “Diocletian, Edict of,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[921] P. 6.

[922] Pp. 9 et seq.

[923] P. 25.

[924] P. 25.

[925] P. 268.

[926] P. 134.

[927] Pp. 25, et seq.; 267, et seq.

[928] And not vice versa. Cf. p. 268.

[929] The “correctness” of physical data (i.e., their applicability never disproved up to date, and therefore ranking as an _interpretation_) is wholly independent of their technical value. An undoubtedly wrong, and even self-contradictory, theory may be more valuable for practical purposes than a “correct” and profound one, and physical science has long been careful to avoid applying the words “right” and “wrong” in the popular sense, and to regard their syntheses as images rather than flat formulæ.

[930] What Diels has managed to assemble in his work _Antike Technik_ amounts to a comprehensive nullity. If we take away from it what belongs to the older Babylonian Civilization (such as water clocks and sun-dials) and to the younger Arabian Springtime (such as chemistry or the wonder-clock of Gaza), there is nothing left but devices, such as door-locks of a sort, that it would be an insult to attribute to any other Culture.

[931] The Chinese Culture, too, made almost all these European discoveries on its own account--including compass, telescope, printing, gunpowder, paper, porcelain--but the Chinese did not wrest, but _wheedled_, things out of Nature. No doubt he felt the advantages of his knowledge and turned it to account, but he did not hurl himself upon it to exploit it.

[932] P. 301.

[933] It is the same spirit that distinguishes the Jewish, Parsee, Armenian, Greek, and Arab ideas of business from that of the Western peoples.

[934] P. 301. Albertus Magnus lived on in legend as the great magician. Roger Bacon meditated upon steam-engines, steamships, and aircraft. (F. Strunz, _Gesch. d. Naturwiss. im Mittelalter_, 1910, p. 88.)

[935] P. 268. According to Roger Bacon the “third rôle of science,” which is not relative to the other sciences, consists in the power that makes it to search the secrets of nature, to discover past and future, and to produce so many marvellous results that power is assured to those who possess it.... The Church should take it into consideration in order to spare Christian blood in the struggle with the infidel and above all in preparation for the perils that will menace us in the days of Antichrist (E. Gilson, _Philosophie au Moyen Âge_, p. 218).--_Tr._

[936] P. 288.

[937] Greek fire was only to terrify and to ignite, but here the tense force of the gases of explosion are converted into energy of motion. Anyone who seriously compares the two does not understand the spirit of the Western technique.

[938] Marx is quite right; it is one of the creations (and what is more, the proudest creation) of the bourgeoisie. But, spellbound as he is by the ancient-mediæval-modern scheme, he has failed to note that it is only the bourgeoisie of this one single Culture that is master of the destiny of the Machine. So long as it dominates the earth, every non-European tries and will try to fathom the secret of this terrible weapon. Nevertheless, inwardly he abhors it, be he Indian or Japanese, Russian or Arab. It is something fundamental in the essence of the Magian soul that leads the Jew, as entrepreneur and engineer, to stand aside from the creation proper of machines and devote himself to the business side of their production. But so also the Russian looks with fear and hatred at this tyranny of wheels, cables, and rails, and if he adapts himself for to-day and to-morrow to the inevitable, yet there will come a time when he will _blot out the whole thing from his memory and his environment_, and create about himself a wholly new world, in which nothing of this Devil’s technique is left.

[939] Compared with this mighty contest between the two handfuls of steel-hard men of race and of immense intellect--which the simple citizen neither observes nor comprehends--the battle of mere interests between the employing class and the workers’ Socialism sinks into insignificance when regarded from the distant world-historical view-point. The working-class movement is what its leaders _make_ of it, and hatred of the owner has long enlisted itself in the service of the bourse. Practical communism with its “class-war”--to-day a long obsolete and adulterated phrase--is nothing but the trusty henchman of big Capital, which knows perfectly well how to make use of it.

[940] In this sense the interest-politics of the workers’ movements also belong to it, in that their object is not to overcome the money-values, but to possess them.

[941] P. 345.

Transcriber’s notes

Apparent typographical errors in English were silently corrected, while non-English text is almost always rendered as printed, with occasional corrections (especially in citations) when further inquiry was made. The index contained dozens of incorrectly spelled or variant proper nouns; where this was noticed, the index spelling was made consistent with the main text. The index entry was not moved even if the new spelling would require it.

Any “{sic}” in this text is the transcriber’s.

Italics are shown by _underscores_.

Redundant part-title pages for chapters have been removed. This accounts for three-page gaps in page numbering (including associated blank pages) in the formats that display page numbers.