THE GEOLOGY OF THE MONGOLIAN PLATEAU, INNER MONGOLIA

Throughout the whole of this journey nothing but igneous and metamorphic rocks were encountered. In general it may be stated that this portion of the Mongolian Plateau is formed by an extensive lava-flow (or flows), traversed by dykes of granite and quartz, the last occurring with less frequency than the others. Whether these dykes are of an older date than the basalt it is not easy to say.

Topographically the area beyond the steep ascent of the Han-nor-pa pass consists of very slightly undulating plains of a uniform altitude (about 4,000 feet), bounded or traversed by small ranges of low, rocky, partially grass-covered hills. The extremities of these are frequently joined by almost imperceptible ridges. Sometimes they end in abrupt cliffs, but most often they slope gently into the plain. In the valleys there are usually shallow lagoons of varying sizes; while occasionally permanent streams of clear, sweet water wind through very clayey soil. The soil round the lagoons is also very argillaceous.

The ascent of the Han-nor-pa pass is through basalt of a dark grey colour, not unlike that encountered in Shansi, while in the valley leading up to it various kinds of rock, all igneous, were noticed. Amongst others, we gathered specimens of a red-brown porphyry containing numerous elongated air-holes, besides distinct crystals of felspar and quartz. Specimens of metamorphosed felspar, of light grey basalt, and of a peculiar yellow sandstone, were also gathered. The predominating rock throughout, however, was found to be basalt, and, nearer to Kalgan, trachyte.

Except in the hills and on the ridges of the Plateau, the thick grass-covered surface soil prevented our noting the nature of the sublying rock, but an examination of the outcrops in the hills showed that basalt greatly predominated, while dykes of granite occurred here and there. As we approached Lama Miao the granite increased in proportion till it seemed, sometimes, as if dykes of basalt crossed the general mass of granite. Usually, however, the higher ridges were found to be of granite, while wherever the sublying rock in the lower slopes and valleys was visible it usually turned out to be basalt. At a place named Oola Hutaga some gneiss was noticed, but here also the hills were chiefly of granite and volcanic rock.

At Tabool we noticed some wide veins of quartz running north and south through metamorphic and granitic rocks. This quartz was not noticed elsewhere. Here also some outcrops of muscovitic schist occurred.

It was stated by one of the missionaries that twenty li (about 6 miles) south-west of Hallo Ossa (near Tabool), the Chinese were excavating for coal. This would suggest an outcrop of the coal-bearing sedimentary rocks noticed west of K’uei-hua-ch’êng.

From Tabool south to Kalgan the outcrops showed almost entirely volcanic, with a little granite.

APPENDIX

ITINERARIES

───┬────────────┬────────────────┬─────────┬──────┬──────────────────── No.│ From │ To │Distance │Stages│ Remarks. │ │ │in Miles │ │ ───┼────────────┼────────────────┼─────────┼──────┼──────────────────── 1 │T’ai-yuan Fu│Sui-tê Chou │ 180│ 9│Via Fên-chou Fu 2 │Yen-an Fu │Yü-lin Fu │ 211│ 10│Via Ching-pien Hsien 3 │Yü-lin Fu │Pao-tê Chou │ 136│ 5│ 4 │Pao-tê Chou │Ning-wu Fu │ 121│ 6│Via Ko-lan Chou 5 │Ning-wu Fu │T’ai-yuan Fu │ 101│ 4│Via Hsin Chou 6 │T’ai-yuan Fu│Ning-wu Fu │ 106│ 6│Via Tsing-lo Hsien 7 │Kalgan │Hsi-wan-tzŭ │ 331⁄2│ 2│ 8 │Yang-kao │K’uci-hua-ch’êng│ 127│ 6│Southern Route │„ „ │„ „ │ 133│ 7│Northern Route ───┴────────────┴────────────────┴─────────┴──────┴────────────────────

ITINERARY No. 1.

T’ai-yuan Fu to Sui-tê Chou (via Fên-chou Fu). Distance, 180 miles; 9 stages.

There is a cart road as far as Fên-chou Fu, which is good in winter but sometimes impassable in the rainy season. From Fên-chou Fu, only mule traffic is possible.

STAGE 1. Chin-esŭ (15 miles). General direction: S.W. Traverse level plain, crossing Fên Ho (by bridge in winter, ford or ferry in summer) two miles S.W. of T’ai-yüan Fu. Pass through low-lying fields to base of hills, where the road becomes rocky. Good inn at Chin-ssŭ, and fine old temple.

STAGE 2. K’ai-shi (27 miles). General direction: S.W. Road good all the way. Pass important town of Chiao-ch’êng Hsien (20 miles), where there are inns. Inns at K’ai-shi very bad.

STAGE 3. Fên-chou Fu (24 miles). General direction: S.W. Pass important town of Wên-sui Hsien (10 miles). Good inns at Fên-chou Fu. Latitude (East Gate) 37° 15′ 42′′ N., Longitude 111° 48′ 2′′. Altitude 2,600 ft.

STAGE 4. Wu-ch’eng (24 miles). General direction: West. Travel up loess valley and crossing a pass descend into limestone canyon at Hsiang-yang (10 miles). Follow up canyon and cross high pass descending rough stony valley to Wu-ch’êng. Several inns at Wu-ch’êng.

STAGE 5. Yung-ning Chou (15 miles). General direction: West. Follow river valley along a good road. Good inns at Yung-ning Chou.

STAGE 6. Liu-lin-chên (15 miles). General direction: S.W. Road follows down valley, first south 5 miles and then west. Good inns at Liu-lin-chên, which is a prosperous place.

STAGE 7. K’ang-chia-t’a (20 miles). General direction: N.W. Continuing down the valley for about 8 miles the road hugs the side, finally turning abruptly up a side ravine. A very steep ascent to high loess pass, and winding descent to bed of Yellow River. This is crossed by ferry. Road follows along the right bank in a westerly direction for 5 miles to K’ang-chia-t’a, where there is a good inn.

STAGE 8. Yi-ho-ch’êng (20 Miles). General Direction: N.W. A stiff climb on leaving K’ang-chia-t’a, followed by some miles over loess tops, and then descent along winding ravine to Yi-ho-ch’êng. Good mule track. Several good inns at Yi-ho-ch’êng.

STAGE 9. Sui-tê Chou (20 miles). General direction: West. N.W. up deep loess ravine, over loess pass and S.W. down second ravine to valley of Wu-ting-Ho, up course of which 8 miles to Sui-tê Chou, situated on the right bank. Good mule track. Good inns in south suburb. Latitude (South Gate) 37° 29′ 51′′ N., Longitude 110° 13′ 49′′ E. Altitude 2,300 ft.

For Itinerary of the journey from Sui-tê Chou to Yen-an Fu, _vide_ “Through Shên-Kan,” Appendix I (a), pp. 159–161.

ITINERARY No. 2.

Yen-an Fu to Yü-lin Fu (via Ching-pien Hsien).

Distance, 211 miles; 10 stages.

Mule track all the way, though big wheeled carts could be used in the Ordos.

STAGE 1. Chou-tung (20 miles). General direction: N.W. Good mule track following valley all the way. Pass An-sai Hsien (15 miles), where there are inns. Cross river once or twice without difficulty. Good inn at Chou-tung (a small village).

STAGE 2. Hua-tzŭ-p’ing (23 miles). General direction: N.W. Road same as stage 1; passing a few small villages. Cross river several times. Good inn at Hua-tzŭ-p’ing.

STAGE 3. Ma-tzŭ-wan (30 miles). General direction: N.W. This journey is made arduous by numerous fordings of the river, 68 in number, but not hard, especially toward the end. Near head of valley a steep and difficult ascent leads to small farm and inn called Ma-tzŭ-wan. No other stopping place. Poor inn.

STAGE 4. Ching-pien Hsien (18 miles). General direction: N.W. A mere bridle-path descending into a deep valley. Ascending other side and crossing sandy flats reaches Ching-pien Hsien, where there are several inns.

STAGE 5. Ning-t’iao-liang (10 miles). General direction: North. Immediately on leaving Ching-pien, a treacherous stream in a deep ravine must be crossed. Ascending on to flat plain the road leads straight north over sand to scattered farms (Chinese) called Ning-t’iao-liang. No inns.

STAGE 6. Hung-tu-er Chieh (20 miles). General direction: N.E. Road lies over sand hills crossing here and there low ridges of harder ground. Sand very hard to walk in. Road not always easy to discern, especially after sandstorm. Very bad inns.

STAGE 7. Ma-ni Ho (20 miles). General direction: N.E. Road same as stage 6. Cross a river named Chang-feng-pan Ho (15 miles). Ma-ni Ho on a small river of same name. Poor inn.

STAGE 8. Hai-lin-t’u Ho (20 miles). General direction: N.E. Road same as stage 6, but more sand hills. Hai-lin-t’u Ho also on small river of same name. Poor inn.

STAGE 9. Hung-t’u-er (25 miles). General direction: N.E. Road even more sandy than stage 8; the soft sand making very hard going. Rather good inn.

STAGE 10. Yü-lin Fu (25 miles). General direction: N.E. Road very sandy and going very hard, otherwise same as preceding stages. Just before reaching Yü-lin Fu strike river bed and turn S. 4 miles to the city.

Yü-lin Fu, Latitude (South Gate) 38° 16′ 54′′. Longitude 109° 44′ 59′′ (Clark).

ITINERARY No. 3.

Yü-lin Fu to Pao-tê Chou.

Distance, 136 miles; 5 stages.

Between these two places there is only a mule track. In places where this skirts deep ravines in the loess it is rather dangerous. The country is very barren and food and fodder are scarce.

STAGE 1. Tuan-ch’iang (20 miles). General direction: N. Sandy road all day. Hard going. Midday halt at Chang-lo-pu. Deep loess gullies make road rather dangerous towards end of day’s journey. Tuan-ch’iang is an inn; there are no others.

STAGE 2. Kao-chia-pu (23 miles). General direction: N.E. First part of road dangerous owing to treacherous path along deep loess ravines. The road crosses the Wall and makes detour into sandy desert. Midday halt at T’uoh-nieh-tzŭ-kou. Road follows stream from here eastward to Kao-chia-pu, inside the Wall. Good inns.

STAGE 3. Shên-mu Hsien (33 miles). General direction: N.E. Road less dangerous, though still sandy and tedious. It follows stream bed, ascending hill to Pei-li-pu, descending other side, it next turns N.N.W. up a large valley to Shên-mu Hsien. Good inns.

STAGE 4. Chêng-hsiang-pu (27 miles). General direction: N.E. Road follows up river bed to Yung-shing-pu, where midday halt is made. Climb hills to Chêng-hsiang-pu. Good inns.

STAGE 5. Pao-tê Chou (23 miles). General direction: East. Descend stream bed all the way. Stop for midday at Ku-shan-pu. Road fairly good. Reaching Yellow River at Fu-liu Hsien, the crossing is effected by means of ferries. Pao-tê Chou on left bank. Good inns in suburb.

ITINERARY No. 4.

Pao-tê Chou to Ning-wu Fu.

Distance, 121 miles; 6 stages.

This is a rough journey, in which two ranges of hills are crossed. There is only a mule track.

STAGE 1. Ta-t’a-pu (15 miles). General direction: E.S.E. Crossing the ridge on which Pao-tê Chou stands, the road descends into a deep ravine up which it follows all the way. Midday halt at Ch’iao-tóu. Good inn at Ta-t’a-pu.

STAGE 2. Shih-tzŭ-yieh (27 miles). General direction: E.S.E. The road continues up the same ravine. Midday halt at Sui-yü-kuan. At the end of ravine a steep ascent brings one to the crest of a high ridge, where Shih-tzü-yieh (a farm) is situated. Lack of water in this country.

STAGE 3. K’o-lan Chou (10 miles). General direction: S.E. This stage is a short one, the road following down a deep and stony ravine to K’o-lan Chou. Good inns.

STAGE 4. Wu-tsai Hsien (24 miles). General direction: N.E. Cart road ascends dry stream bed to its source. A low ridge is crossed, and the road enters Wu-tsai plain. Road rather stony. Good inns at Wu-tsai.

STAGE 5. Ch’ên-ch’eh Hsien (24 miles). General direction: N.E. Road less stony; good for carts. Very low ridge is crossed not far from Wu-tsai. Inn accommodation poor at Ch’êng-ch’eh.

STAGE 6. Ning-wu Fu (10 miles). General direction: S.E. The road, a mere mule track, leads over a high ridge. Both ascent and descent are very steep. Good inns at Ning-wu Fu.

ITINERARY No. 5.

Ning-wu Fu to T’ai-yuan Fu (via Hsin Chou).

Distance, 101 miles: 4 stages.

An easy journey. The last three stages are good for cart traffic, though rather bad in very wet weather.

STAGE 1. Tai-niu-tien (27 miles). General direction: S.E. Road, a mule track, follows up canyon, crossing pass at top. Then descent is made into a long valley, which narrows down into a deep gorge just before it comes out on to the Hsin Chou plain. No inn at Tai-niu-tien.

STAGE 2. Hsin Chou (35 miles). General direction: S.S.E. This is not the usual stage, but it can be made in summer by making an early start. Several small villages passed. The whole journey is along a cart road over the plain.

STAGE 3. Huang-t’u-tsai (24 miles), General direction: South. After traversing plain for three miles (cross muddy river bed), an ascent is made and a low pass crossed. Subsequently road follows through Loess country sunken roads to Huang-t’u-tsai. Heavy cart traffic and many inns along the road.

STAGE 4. T’ai-yuan Fu (15 miles), General direction: S. The cart road continues down the dry stream bed, finally reaching the T’ai-yuan Fu plain. Road good except in rainy season.

ITINERARY No. 6.

T’ai-yuan Fu to Ning-wu Fu (via Tsing-lo Hsien).

Distance, 106 miles; 6 stages.

STAGE 1. Pei-pan (12 miles). General direction: N.W. Cart road lies over the plain to this village. Good all the year except in the rainy season. Two or three inns at this village.

STAGE 2. Pei-hsiao-tein-tzŭ (20 miles). General direction: N.W. Road follows up stony river bed to Kuan-k’ou (3 miles), then enters deep gorge in mountain. There is a path up side and along the top of the gorge. This is easier going than the gorge bottom. 10 miles further to Ling-ching, the midday halt. Still continue up gorge, now more open, to Pei-hsiao-tien. Good inns.

STAGE 3. Tsing-lo Hsien (27 miles). General direction: N.W. Shortly after leaving Pei-hsiao-tein two high passes must be crossed. The road then descends down stony river bed to K’ang-chia-hui (12 miles). Continue westward down valley all the way to Tsing-lo Hsien on the Fên Ho.

STAGE 4. Niu-hua-ch’êng (20 miles). General direction: N.N.E. Follow up Fên Ho valley all the way. Going good. No cart road. Midday halt at Yuang-an-chêng (9 miles). Poor inn.

STAGE 5. Tung-tsai (12 miles). General direction: N.N.E. Still continue up Fên Ho valley. Road same as day before. Hua-pei-t’ung (5 miles). No inn at Tung-tsai.

STAGE 6. Ning-wu Fu (15 miles). General direction: N.N.E. Cart road (very rough) follows stony valley up to its head. A very rough but not steep pass is crossed at Fên-sui-ling (5 miles). Descent into Hua Ho valley. Stony road all the way to Ning-wu Fu.

ITINERARY No. 7.

Kalgan to Hsi-wan-tzŭ.

Distance, 331⁄2 miles; 2 stages.

A very short, but at times difficult journey. The road prepared for cart traffic is very rough and in spring when the ice is melting, or in the rainy season it is very difficult. It could be done in one day, but is a bit long for that.

STAGE 1. Hsin-yin-tzŭ (131⁄2 miles). General direction: W.N.W. Road as stated above. First 4 miles northward, then due west to Hsin-yin-tzŭ. Halfway halt at Kao-chia-yin-tzŭ. Suitable inns at both places.

STAGE 2. Hsi-wan-tzŭ (20 miles). General direction: N.W. Road as above; follows stony valley all the way. Poor inns at Hsi-wan-tzŭ. Catholic Mission has a large establishment.

ITINERARY No. 8.

Yang-kao to K’uei-hua-ch’êng.

Distance, Southern route, 127 miles; 6 stages; Northern route, 133 miles; 7 stages.

This journey is a comparatively easy one. There is a cart road all the way. From T’ien-ch’êng-ts’uen there are two routes; one south and one north of the Tai Hai. The northern is perhaps the easiest.

STAGE 1. Kuan-t’ung-pu (20 miles). General direction: West. The road first crosses three miles of plain (northward). It then enters a winding stony gorge going westward, and crossing low ridge at its head follows a wide valley. Crossing a low loess plateau in N.W. direction it finally reaches Kuang-t’ung-pu. Good inn.

STAGE 2. Fên-chêng (12 miles). General direction: W.N.W. Leaving Kuan-t’ung-pu the road climbs on to a broad plateau, which it traverses for 8 miles, passing some scattered villages the largest of which is called He-ke-ta-wan-tzŭ. The western descent from the plateau is very steep and rough. 4 miles up the valley to Fên-chêng, which is an important place with good inns.

STAGE 3. T’ien-ch’êng-ts’uen (18 miles). General direction: W.N.W. The road first crosses a small flat plain, somewhat swampy, for 3 miles. It then crosses a ridge and reaches Ma-ts’ang-liang (5 miles). Following a valley up its course it finally reaches T’ien-ch’êng-ts’uen, passing Ma-wang-miao (5 miles). Good inns.

_SOUTHERN ROUTE._

STAGE 4. Hsiang-huo-ti (21 miles). General direction: West. Leaving T’ien-ch’êng-ts’uen the road takes a westerly course for 5 miles, when it reaches the T’ai Hai plain at Fang-huo-chêng. It then crosses plain, keeping south of the lake, and reaches Hsiang-hua-ti, a catholic village with a church and mission buildings. Poor inns.

STAGE 5. Yang-p’o-yao-tzŭ (24 miles). General direction: West. Road goes westward, and, crossing a low pass into valley, reaches Ning-yuan-ting, passing several small villages on the way. Next it follows up a stony valley at whose head a steep pass is crossed. Descent down through stony valley, which gets very narrow and rough near Yang-p’o-yao-tzŭ. Two good inns.

STAGE 6. K’uei-hua-ch’êng (32 miles). General direction: N.W. This is a long stage, and if necessary can be divided into two, a halt being made at Yang-ke-pa-er (8 miles from K’uei-hua-ch’êng). The first 6 miles down stony valley, at whose mouth Hsi-k’ou-men is situated. Subsequently the road crosses the plain, the first 5 miles to Sha-pu-na (or Nor) being very sandy is hard going. Other villages from here on are He-t’an-wan (11⁄2 miles), Pi-chien-fang (11⁄2 miles), Yang-ke-pa-er (3 miles), Ta-pu-na (or Nor) (5 miles), and Ta-he-he (5 miles).

_NORTHERN ROUTE._

STAGE 4. Su-chi (20 miles). General direction North. On leaving T’ien-ch’êng-ts’uen the road bends to the north-west up a gradual ascent to a pass in a bluff on the edge of the T’ai Hai basin, then descends to Pa-ti-hsiah (inns) (5 miles), subsequently turning northward, skirting the eastern shore of the lake. It passes Ma-liu-t’ung (inns) (6 miles), Sha-tai-kou (6 miles), when it enters mountain valley and reaches Su-chi, which place is composed of one large inn.

STAGE 5. Sui-mo-chien (25 miles). General direction: W.N.W. The road turns westward up a side valley and crosses a steep pass (6 miles), descends into another valley passing Hao-ch’ien-shan (4 miles), and Wu-li-pa (2 miles; several inns). It then crosses another low pass and descends valley to Sui-mo-chien, passing Ta-la-pu-la (2 miles, pop. 1,000; several inns), Hung-sha-pa (3 miles), Ta-yu-ssŭ (3 miles, pop. 500; several inns).

STAGE 6. Mei-tê-erh (18 miles). General direction: W.N.W. Road follows down valley and is easy going. It passes Ming-k’ou-mên (3 miles), Lang-tiao-tze (11⁄2 miles), Ku-li-shih (11⁄2 miles), Ku-chia-wan-tzŭ (3 miles), Shih-jên-wan (3 miles; good inn). Mei-tê-erh is just outside the mouth of the valley.

STAGE 7. K’uei-hua-ch’êng (20 miles). General direction: W.N.W. The road crosses the plain and is easy going. It passes Wu-lu (5 miles), Pa-tzŭ (4 miles), Tao-ho-lung (2 miles), Chia-hsiang-yin-tzŭ (3 miles) and Tai-sung (3 miles). K’uei-hua-ch’êng: pop. 50,000; good inns. Important commercial centre.

I refrain from giving itineraries of our journey in Inner Mongolia, as unless the main high roads are followed there can be no certainty about the stages and halting places. The Mongols shift their camps, as it suits them, and the traveller perforce pitches his own camp at the end of a day’s run, wherever he can find a supply of water. We did not follow the main high road to Lama-Miao, so cannot give the stages.

_Printed in Great Britain by_ Butler & Tanner, _Frome and London_.

Footnote 1:

In north China, excepting in Kansu, the best bread is steamed, and goes by the name of “Chêng mo.”

Footnote 2:

In the winter of 1911, the writer again visited this district, as leader of the Shensi Relief Expedition.

The effects of the Revolution, which has been described as being “synonymous with anarchy in Shensi,” were only too painfully evident. The year’s crops were still standing. Many villages along the high road were deserted, such of the inhabitants as had escaped death having betaken themselves to hastily built stockades in the highest loess hills, while the towns were continually menaced by robber hordes and lawless bands of the dreaded Ko Lao Hui (Elder Brother Society).

Since that date no word of the prevailing conditions in North Shensi has reached the outside world, but it is highly probable that the already scanty population has been still further reduced by sword and famine, and that large stretches of country under cultivation at the time of the writer’s first visit to this district, now lie a wilderness—a refuge for the increasing coveys of game, and a hiding place for robber bands.—A. DE C. S.

Footnote 3:

In November, 1913, the author, accompanied by Captain T. Holcomb of the U.S. Marines, visited some mountains in the Kuci-hua-Ch’êng district, said to contain wapiti. This information turned out to be correct, and they had splendid sport, securing five wapiti bucks, and several gorals.

One of the wapiti, shot by the Captain, had a really magnificent pair of horns, with twelve points, six and six, and measuring:—length along curve, right 41 inches, left 391⁄2 inches; length, tip to base, right 34 inches, left 311⁄2 inches; widest spread 291⁄2 inches; basal circumference, right 91⁄2 inches, left 9 inches.

As is usually the case the deer were confined to a comparatively small area and frequented certain ravines and valleys almost exclusively. To exactly what species this deer belongs, it is impossible to say. It may turn out to be an intermediate form between the Manchurian wapiti (_Cervus xanthopygus_) and the Kansu wapiti (_Cervus kansuensis_).—A. de C. S.

Footnote 4:

Owing to this town being the temporary terminus of the newly-opened Chang-sui Extension Line, an extensive trade in grain had sprung up, to carry on which the merchants had large sums of ready money in hand.—A. de C. S.

Footnote 5:

This menace no longer exists.

Footnote 6:

Mr. Larson subsequently held for a time the position of adviser on Mongolian Affairs to the Chinese Government on account of his intimate knowledge of the country and its people. He now holds rank in Mongolia equivalent to that of a Prince.

Footnote 7:

Probably overestimated.

Footnote 8:

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 60, No. 28.

Footnote 9:

A similar epidemic has taken place this winter (1913–14), so that the pigs have decreased again.—A. de C. S.

Footnote 10:

This limestone occurs also in the Wu-t’ai Hsien district of Shansi, besides forming a large mass of the mountains at the famous Nan-k’ou pass north of Peking, at which point it was described and named “Untersinisch” by Richthofen. This was subsequently divided from the Sinian system by the members of the Carnegie Expedition, 1904, who discovered the unconformity between the two systems.

Footnote 11:

This company was formed by the gentry of the province to exploit the mineral resources (chiefly coal and iron) after the redemption of the mining rights from the Pekin Syndicate, by the payment, it is said, of Tls. 2,250,000. The concession was first obtained by the Pekin Syndicate in 1898, and was finally relinquished in 1907. Since that time the Chinese have really done very little to develop these vast mineral resources.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

● Fixed typos; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. ● Renumbered footnotes and moved them all to the end of the final chapter. ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.