NAPOLEON THE GREAT AND THE FIRST EMPIRE

A few years before Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette came to the throne, a boy was born on the little island of Corsica who became, before many years had passed, far more powerful than they, or any other sovereigns of France ever thought of being. His parents, Charles and Letitia Bonaparte, were Italians, but a few weeks before his birth, Corsica became a part of France, and so the child, who was named Napoleon, was born a French subject.

When Napoleon was ten years old, he was sent to a military school at Brienne. He was small and thin. He had not money enough to dress as well as the other boys. He did not speak French well, for all that he knew of the language was what he had learned in a few months’ study. He hated France, because she had conquered his beloved island, but of course he had to keep this hatred to himself. He was proud and a little gloomy, and for some time he kept away from the other boys. The story is told, however, that one very cold winter he proposed building, not a mere “snow fort,” but a complicated fortification, made according to military engineering. He divided the school into besieged and besiegers, and the struggle between them was so earnest and followed military tactics so strictly that for many days it was the great entertainment of the people of Brienne to watch the contest.

At fifteen, Napoleon was promoted to the military school of Paris. All expenses here were paid from the royal treasury, and the boys had every luxury, the softest of beds, the most dainty food, and a servant for each to polish his weapons, groom his horse, and wait upon him in every way. This boy, however, did not approve, and he wrote to the governor urging that it would be better for young men expecting to undergo the privations of army life not to attempt to prepare themselves by living in such luxurious surroundings.

In 1785, when Napoleon was sixteen, he passed his examinations for graduation, showing himself especially brilliant in mathematics, and now he wore a sword in all the glory of being second lieutenant of artillery. For some years, however, this was all the glory he could claim, for he was stationed at one place and another in France with no opportunity to show what he could do.

At length, however, his opportunity appeared. As the Revolution progressed, the sovereigns of other countries began to be afraid, as has been said, that it would affect their kingdoms and their thrones. When Louis was put to death, England and Holland delayed no longer, but at once declared war against France. Russia and Spain soon followed their example. In 1793, the troops of the Convention determined to attack the town of Toulon, near Marseilles, which was in the hands of the English and Spanish. The general in command of the artillery was ill, and the command was given to Napoleon. His years of study had their reward. His management of the artillery was a success, and by a plan which he proposed in a council of war, Toulon was taken.

The young soldier received praise in plenty, but when he asked for an appointment, the reply was always, “You are not old enough.” His salary could not be collected, and he actually thought of offering his services to the Turks, then at war with Russia and Austria. “How singular it would be,” he said to a companion, “if a little Corsican officer should become King of Jerusalem!”

But the way was opening for him. The French armies were not succeeding in driving the Austrians from Italy. Some one suggested that Napoleon was well informed on the subject, and he was asked to meet with the Committee of Public Safety. Here he showed such knowledge of the Maritime Alps and such skill in planning that he was at length put in command of the war to be waged in Italy against Austria. “The troops are in need of everything,” he was told, “and we can furnish you with no money for supplies.” “Only give me men enough,” responded Napoleon, “and I will ask for nothing more.” This was a new kind of commander; but he understood what he was about, and to the troops themselves he said: “Soldiers, you are poorly fed and almost naked. The Government owes you much, but can do nothing. I am about to lead you into the most fertile country in the world. There, great cities and prosperous provinces await you. There you will find honor, glory, and riches. Soldiers of the Army of Italy, shall you lack courage for the enterprise?” They did not lack.

Victory followed victory. One of the most famous was the crossing of the bridge of Lodi under a terrific fire. “It is impossible,” said one of Napoleon’s officers; but Napoleon retorted, “Impossible? There is no such word in French.” The bridge was crossed, and the Austrians were driven back, much to their wrath. “The blockhead knows nothing of the rules of war,” declared an Austrian general. “Who ever saw such tactics?” Nevertheless, they were the tactics that won the day. “The boy has done so well,” said one of his generals in jest, “that he ought to be promoted. Let us make him a corporal.” The troops heard of this, and from that day dates their pet name of the “Little Corporal” for their boyish-looking commander.

After his successes in Italy, Napoleon pushed on into Austria, and was approaching Vienna so rapidly that the emperor asked for peace. The treaty of Campo Formio was signed; and one of its conditions was that Lafayette should be set free.

Not long before Napoleon received his appointment as head of the French troops in Italy, and while he was still in Paris in charge of the defense of the Convention, a winning boy of some twelve years came to see him one day. Napoleon, obeying the orders of the Convention, had taken away all arms from the people of Paris. This boy had come to beg that his father’s sword might be given back to him. The father had been guillotined. Napoleon ordered the sword to be returned, and on the following day the boy’s mother called to thank the general for his kindness to her son. She had had an eventful life. Some years before, the Viscount Beauharnais had visited the island of Martinique, in the West Indies, and had met the charming young girl named Josephine Tascher. He had married her and brought her to the court of Marie Antoinette. Then came the Reign of Terror, and only the death of Robespierre had saved her from her husband’s fate. Beside the boy Eugène who had come to Napoleon, she had also a little daughter, Hortense.

Before long, Napoleon and the young mother of the two children were deeply in love, and three weeks before he set out for Italy, they were married. Throughout the campaign he wore her miniature on a ribbon about his neck, and he never had too much on his hands to write her most affectionate letters. One day he found that the glass over the miniature was broken. This was a bad omen, he feared, and he could not rest till a courier had been sent to make sure that she was well.

Meanwhile there was no government in France that any one could expect to be permanent. The country was ruled by five “Directors,” but many people would have been glad to see a king on the throne again or to see almost any change giving them a strong and wise government that would promise to last. But whether people wanted a kingdom or a republic, they were all enthusiastic over the victories of Napoleon, and when he returned, there was a great celebration, so great, indeed, that the Directors felt rather uncomfortable. Authority had changed hands more than once. It was quite possible that this brilliant young commander, to whom the French people were so devoted, might even put the Directors themselves out of office. Already shouts were heard in the streets, “The Little Corporal shall be king! Long live the Little Corporal!” This would never do. Napoleon must be kept out of sight, and then perhaps he would be out of mind. They would order him to invade England.

Napoleon set out with three generals to study the coast of France opposite England. For eight days he examined it; he talked with fishermen and sailors, even with smugglers, and made himself familiar with the whole coast. “It cannot be done,” he reported. “It is too dangerous. I will not risk the fate of France upon an attack by sea.”

Napoleon had something else to propose, however--and for that matter, he always had “something else” in mind, some bold plan which no other person had thought of; and this time it was to attack England, not on her own shores, but through her possessions in the East, Egypt first of all. He planned not only to conquer, but to colonize, and thus to shut England off from Eastern trade and monopolize it for France. Therefore he wished to take with him a number of scientific men to study the plants and minerals and other wealth of the country. The Directors were ready to agree to almost anything, if they could only get out of the way the man whom they feared, and Napoleon set sail, few, even among the officers, knowing where they were to land.

The English knew that Napoleon had set out with his army for somewhere, but where they could only guess. All they could do was to send Lord Nelson to patrol the waters of the Mediterranean Sea in the hope of meeting the French fleet. Nelson cruised along the Egyptian coast, and then sailed to the northward. Two days later, while he was steering for the Hellespont, the French troops landed safely in Egypt, rushed on to Alexandria, and captured the city. In less than a week, Napoleon had made just laws, had regulated the police system, and had put under way many plans for schools, manufactories, etc. He left three thousand men in charge of the city and set off through the desert for Cairo. It was sixty miles to Cairo, sixty miles of burning, sandy desert; but who could complain when the Little Corporal himself marched at the head of the line, slept on the sand, and ate the same kind of rations that were issued to his men?

Frequently the Mamelukes, the haughty Egyptian troops, mounted on Arabian horses fleet as the wind, dashed down upon them; but Napoleon was equal to even the Mamelukes. He trained his men to form hollow squares at a moment’s notice and the word, “Scientists and donkeys to the center!”--for donkeys carried the baggage. These squares, keeping in perfect form, marched wherever they were commanded; but when the moment came to fight, they faced in four directions, artillery at the corners, and the outer ranks kneeling so those within could shoot over their heads. It was not easy to attack a square mass of bayonets, and even when the Mamelukes changed their tactics and made a determined stand, Napoleon won the day. This battle took place in sight of the pyramids; and just before it began, Napoleon made one of his most famous speeches to his troops. He stood, pointing with his sword to the mighty tombs of the ancient kings, and said, “Soldiers, from these summits forty centuries are looking down upon you.” It is no wonder that they were aroused to do their best.

In three weeks Napoleon had become master of Egypt, but he formed a government in which the people themselves should rule. He taught them the use of tools that were new to them; he established hospitals, set up a printing press, planned two canals to connect the Red Sea with the Mediterranean, and best of all, won the hearts of the Arabians, for never before had they seen a conqueror who did not abuse them. More than this, he actually seemed to care for them. A poor peasant was slain and his flocks carried off by desert robbers. Napoleon ordered an immediate pursuit and vengeance. “Was the poor wretch your cousin?” asked one of the Arabian chiefs rather scornfully. “He was more than that,” Napoleon replied; “he was one whose safety Providence has entrusted to my care.”

But even Napoleon did not always have things as he would. His order to remove the fleet from the Bay of Aboukir, at the mouth of the Nile, had not been obeyed. Nelson came down upon it, and only four ships escaped. This was the Battle of the Nile. Napoleon was deeply disappointed, but all he said was, “We must do greater things than we intended,” and a few months later he marched on into Syria. If he could have taken Acre, he might have been able to win Persia and India; but the English and Turks held on to Acre, and a regretful commander led his army back into Egypt.

It had now been many months since Napoleon had heard from France. Sir Sidney Smith, the defender of Acre, either from courtesy or to show that opposition was useless, sent him a great bundle of newspapers. He learned now the story of the year. He learned that almost all the countries of Europe had united against France; that the French had been driven out of Italy; and that all the efforts of France could hardly keep her enemies from her own soil. What should they do? What strong hand could take control? People were asking, “But where is Napoleon? He is strong and wise; he could save us.” He might have been slain in the East--no one knew--but France was longing for him, and he was soon on his way to her. With only a little handful of men for a guard, he left the army in Egypt and sailed for France.

When the vessel came near the shores of France and signaled that Napoleon was on board, the whole populace was wild with delight. The people had been fearing an Austrian invasion, but Napoleon would save them. They swarmed over his ship. “The vessel has just come from Alexandria; it may bring the plague,” they were warned; but they only shouted jubilantly, “Better the plague than the Austrians!” When Napoleon reached Paris, bells rang, cannon roared, and the streets echoed with his name. In the theaters there was a pause in each play for the announcement, “Napoleon is here!” What he would do, no one could say; but somehow, he would defend them and give them a strong, just government.

The government of France consisted of the five Directors; a senate, which was called the “House of Ancients”; and a house of representatives, or “Council of Five Hundred.” In a little more than three weeks, Napoleon had prepared his way. The people and the army were with him, some of the Directors resigned, others favored him. Of the House of Ancients, he demanded the right to draw up a new constitution, and they made no objection. The Council of Five Hundred was then in session. Suddenly they heard proclaimed from the door, “In the name of General Bonaparte, this Assembly is dissolved.” There stood Napoleon, and his grenadiers with bayonets lowered, ready to charge. This was Napoleon’s _coup d’état_, or blow at the state; that is, a sudden change in the form of government.

By the new constitution France was still a republic, but all power was really in the hands of three consuls, of whom Napoleon was chief. But neither England nor Austria would accept Napoleon as properly the ruler of France. They still declared that a younger brother of Louis XVI was the rightful sovereign. Evidently this must be fought out. Austria was beaten, both in Italy and on her own soil, and she had to sign a treaty agreeing that the Rhine should be the eastern boundary of France. The English were successful in Egypt, but they, too, were ready to sign a treaty the following year.

Now that there was a little freedom from war, Napoleon set to work to care for home duties. The most famous of his works is his Code Napoleon, a revision of the laws of France. It harmonized those that did not agree, and struck out the unfair, oppressive laws. Best of all, it made it clear that in law a man was a man, and that all men were to be treated alike.

Napoleon was now made consul for life. A year or two later, in 1804, the people were asked to vote whether he should be made emperor or not; and in all France there were not three thousand persons who opposed. France was no longer a republic; it had become an empire, and the little boy from Corsica sat upon its throne. To make his position doubly sure, he now asked the Pope, who was quite in his power, to come to Paris and crown him. There were magnificent ceremonies at the Church of Notre Dame, and the Pope anointed the new emperor with the holy oil; but when it came to placing the crown upon his head, Napoleon did that for himself, and then crowned Josephine as empress.

But what did the rest of Europe say to this? How were they pleased to see on the throne of France this man in no way related to royalty? Of course, they united against him--England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden--all determined to bring back the Bourbon family and put the boundaries of France where they had been in the good old times of the monarchy. Napoleon was longing to invade England, but he had too much to do on the Continent. He made a quick march into Austria, and at the end of 1805, he won a great victory at Austerlitz over the Austrians and the Russians. This brought about many changes in the map of Europe, and sixteen of the German States formed the “Confederacy of the Rhine,” with Napoleon for protector. As for England, Napoleon had again decided that he could not cross the “wet ditch,” as he called the English Channel, for England was protected by her ships; and already Lord Nelson, off Cape Trafalgar, had destroyed most of the French navy.

War followed war. Napoleon overpowered Prussia and Russia. England stood firm, but there were other ways to attack her than with cannon balls. She had forbidden direct trade between France, Spain, Holland, and their respective colonies. Napoleon now forbade the Continental powers to admit English vessels to their ports or to send ships to England; and this caused an immense loss to English commerce. Portugal did not obey. Thereupon Napoleon seized Lisbon, and then Spain. The King of Spain fled, and Napoleon put one of his brothers on the Spanish throne. Indeed, this conqueror of Europe played with kingdoms and thrones as if they were checkers in a game. One brother he made King of Holland. A brother-in-law was put upon the throne of Naples. Dukedoms and principalities were arranged just as he chose, and were put under the rule of his favorite generals.

But in all of Napoleon’s triumphs there was one deep disappointment. The French people had given him the right to name his successor, and he had no child. Between his ambition and his love for Josephine he long hesitated. Then he divorced her, and soon afterwards married Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria--for the emperor did not venture to refuse this powerful suitor. The following year a son was born to them, and to him Napoleon promptly gave the title of “King of Rome.”

Except for Spain, Napoleon ruled the Continent from Austria to the Atlantic, and he had an heir to inherit his glory. What more could he ask? But some of those who were watching his career saw here and there little cracks in the mighty structure that he had reared which made them doubt whether his power would last. The kingdoms and dukedoms and principalities which he had formed were not going on as smoothly as he could wish. Of course the princes who had lost their thrones were indignant, and many of their former subjects were restless and discontented. Even in France, Napoleon’s power showed signs of weakening. The French gloried in his conquests, but the country was drained of men to fill up the lines of his armies, and the pockets of even the thrifty French people were drained to pay the cost of these wars. Then, too, Josephine was so gentle and tactful that all the people loved her and they were indignant at the divorce. They had looked upon Napoleon as one of themselves, sorry for their troubles, and bound to do his best to help them; but now that he had allied himself with the imperial family of Austria, they felt that he had deserted their cause and was striving for nothing but his own greatness.

France was tired of war, but Napoleon still saw fields to conquer. The Spanish had not yielded, and the English under the Duke of Wellington had come to help them. It is easy now to look back and see that Napoleon ought to have made sure that Spain was subdued, but Russia, as well as Portugal, had not obeyed his trade laws, and he was bent upon punishing the disobedient country. Straight into Russia he and his army of half a million men marched. He was eager for a great battle, but the Russians had other plans. They slowly withdrew to the northward, burning all foodstuffs as they went. Napoleon followed until he was at Borodino. Then he had his wish. Moscow was only seventy miles away, and the Russians decided to try to overpower the French at Borodino. There was a battle great enough to satisfy Napoleon, and the Russians had to retreat.

Napoleon pursued, for in Moscow there would be food and treasures; but when he came to Moscow, all was dead silence. The food was gone, and the people were gone. In the course of an hour or two, fires broke out in different parts of the city. The wily Russians had kindled them and had carried away or broken up the fire engines. The climate fought for Russia. Napoleon had to retreat as best he could. The cold was intense, and as he and his men ploughed through the deep snowdrifts, half fed and only half clothed, they were attacked by the Russians. Bullets, cold, and hunger did their terrible work, and out of every five men who had gone into Russia, only two ever saw their homes again.

For the sixth time the countries of Europe were united against Napoleon. Wellington had driven the French out of Spain. The allies defeated them at Leipsic, and soon forced their way into Paris. The great Emperor Napoleon was forced to abdicate. The allies were willing to let him keep the title of emperor; but a small empire he reigned over, for he was sent to the tiny island of Elba, eighteen miles long, just off the coast of Italy.

Now was the chance for the friends of the exiled Bourbons. They seized the opportunity to put a younger brother of Louis XVI on the throne, and he took the title of Louis XVIII. But the nobles were as proud and selfish and insolent as they had been in the days of Louis XVI, and the people began to wish that Napoleon was in power again. He was closely watching what was going on in France. He escaped from Elba and landed on the French shores. The troops that had sworn to be faithful to the Bourbon king deserted in a moment and joined the train of Napoleon, and the people were jubilant. Louis XVIII fled, and again Napoleon was Emperor of France.

But again the European countries poured their armies into the empire. Napoleon hurried into Belgium to strike the English and Prussians separately before they could unite. He met the Prussians under Blücher and was victorious, though Blücher’s army was not destroyed. At Waterloo, he met Wellington and the English. All day long the fight went on. Grouchy was coming to aid Napoleon; Blücher to aid Wellington. Blücher arrived first. Napoleon made one last charge, but it was useless, and he had to flee to Paris and then to abdicate for the second time. He wished to go to America, but the allies would not permit this. Then he asked to be allowed to live quietly in England; but they knew that, as long as he was in Europe, there would be plots to restore him to the throne of France. He was carried on a British vessel to the little island of Saint Helena, about half as large as Elba. Even here, far away in the South Atlantic, he was carefully guarded and watched lest some plot should be formed to rescue him. Six years later he died with a whispered “Josephine” on his lips. She had died just before he was sent to Elba, and he was glad that she had not seen his final downfall. Maria Louisa had returned to her father’s court at Vienna. Napoleon believed that some day his son would rule France, and just before his death he dictated a long letter of advice and affection to be given to him. But the Austrian grandfather did not wish the child to have any connection with France, and he was brought up strictly as an Austrian and was not allowed even to have a French attendant. The baby “King of Rome” was only three years old when he was separated from his father. He worshiped his father’s memory, but his questions about him were not answered, and he was never permitted to read his father’s letter. At twenty-one he died.

Napoleon had asked to be buried either in France or in Corsica; but it was not until nineteen years after his death that his conquerors would permit his body to be taken from the island of his banishment. It now lies under the dome of the Invalides, in Paris.